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4 















MAXIMS 



AND 



INSTEUCTIONS 



FOR 



THE BOILER ROOM, 








1 





A 



± 



L\ 




JL 




This Work is Fraternally inscribed 
to W. R. Hawkins, R. F, Hawkins 
and F, P. Hawkins, 




± 




Maxims and Instructions 



FOR 



The Boiler Room. 



USEFUI< TO 



Engineers, Firemen & Mechanics, 

RELATING TO STEAM GENERATORS, PUMPS, 
APPLIANCES, STEAM HEATING, PRAC- 
TICAL PLUMBING, ETC. 




By NrHAWKINS, M. E., 



Honorary Mkmber National Association of Stationary Engineers 

Editorial Writer, Author of Hand Book of Calculations 

FOR Engineers and Firemen, Etc., Etc. 

Comprising Instructions and Suggestions on the Construc- 
tion, Setting, Controi^ and Management of Various 
Forms of Steam Boii^ers ; on the Theory and Prac- 
TiCAiv Operation of the Steam Pump ; Steam 
Heating ; Practtcai^ Pi^umbing ; ai^o 
RuEES FOR THE Safety Vai^ve, 
Strength of Boilers, Ca- 
PAciiY OF Pumps, Etc. 



XHEO. ATLTDEIv S- CO., F»tjblishiers, 

72 fifth AVE., Cor. 13TH St., 
New York. 



XI 







z^ 



Copyrighted 

1897— 1898— 1903 

by 

ThEO, AUDElv & Co. 



"^rz 



~/i 




t 




X 




i>it:EJFAc:EJ. 



The chief apology for the preparation and issue of 
these Maxims and Instructions, for the use of Steam 
users, Engineers and Firemen, is the more than hind 
reception of Calculations, 

But there are other reasons. There is the wholesome 
desire to benefit the class, with whom, in one way and 
another, the author has been associated nearly two score 
years. 

The plan followed in this work will be the same as 
that so generally approved in Calculations ; the com- 
pleted volume will be a worJc of reference and instruction 
upon those works set forth in the title page. As a work 
of reference the work will be especially helpful through 
combined Index and Definition Tables to he inserted at 
the close of the book. By the use of these the meaning 
of every machine, material and performance of the 
boiler room can be easily found and the "points" of 
instruction made use of. 

This work being issued in parts, now in manuscriptf 
and capable of change or enlargement, the editor will be 
thankful for healthful suggestions from his professional 
brethren, before it is put into permanent hook form.. 







¥ 





^^^f iliPHEP*^'^ 




J: 




INTRODUCTION. 



Each successive generation of engineers has added cer 
tain unwritten experiences to the general stock of knowledge 
relating to steam production, which have been communicated 
fco their successors^ and by them added to, in their turn-j 
it is within the province of this book to put in form for 
reference, these unwritten laws of conduct, which have passed 
into MAXIMS among engineers and firemen — a maxim being 
an undisputed truth, expressed in the shortest terms. 

Soliloquy of an Engineer. "Standing in the boiler room and 
looking around me, there are many tJimgs 1 ought to know a good 
deal about. Coal I What is its quality ? How much is used in ten 
hours or twenty four hours ? Is the grate under the boiler the best 
for an economical consumption of fuel ? Can I, by a change in method 
of firing, save any coal ? The safety-valve. Do I know at what 
pressure it will blow off ? Can I calculate the safety-valve so as to be 
certain the weight is placed right ? Do I know how to calculate the 
area of the grate, the heating surface of the tubes and shell ? Do 1 
know the construction of the steam-gauge and vacuum gauge ? Am 1 
certain the steam-gauge is indicating correctly, neither over nor under 
the pressure of the steam ? What do I know about the setting of 
boilers ? About the size and quality of fire bricks ? About the com- 
bination of carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with the oxygen of the 
atmosphere ? About oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen ? About the 
laws of combustion ? About radiation and heat surfaces ? 

' ' Do I know what are good non-conductors for covering of pipes, 
and why they are good ? Do I know how many gallons of water are 
in the boiler ? 

" What do know about water and steam ? How many gallons of 
water are evaporated in twenty-four hours ? What do I know about 
iron and steel, boiler evaporation, horse power of engines, boiler 
appendages and fittings. 

"Can I calculate the area and capacity of the engine cylinder? 
Can I take an indicator diagram and read it ? Can I set the eccentric ? 
Can I set valves ? Do I understand the construction of the thermom- 
eter, and know something about the pressure of the atmosphere, tem- 
perature and the best means for ventilation ? Can I use a pyrometet 
and a salinometer ? 



INTRODUCTION. 



"Without going outside of my boiler and engine room I find these 
things are all about me — air, water, steam, heat, gases, motion, speed, 
strokes and revolutions, areas and capacities — how much do I know about 
these ? 

"How much can be learned from one lump of coal ? What was it, 
where did it come from ? When it is burned, what gases will it give off ? 

"i^nd so with water. What is the composition of water ? What are 
the effects of heat upon it ? How does lit circulate ? WTiat is the 
temperature of boiling water ? What are the temperatures under differ- 
ent pressures ? What is latent heat ? What is expansive force ?" 

These are the questioning thoughts which fill, while on duty, 
more or less vividly, the minds of both engineers and fire- 
men, and it is the purpose of this volume to answer the en- 
quiries, as far as may be without attempting too much; for 
the perfect knowledge of the operations carried on within 
the boiler-room involves an acquaintance with many branches 
of science. In matters relating to steam engineering, it must 
be remembered that ''art is long and time is short." 

The utility of such a book as this is intended to be, no one 
will question, and he who would not be a ''hewer of wood 
and a drawer of water" to the more intelligent and well 
informed mechanic, must possesses to a considerable extent 
the principles and rules embraced in this book; and more 
especially, if he would be master of his profession and re- 
puted as one whose skill and decisions can be implicitly relied 
upon. 

The author in the preparation of the work has had two 
objects constantly in view; first to cause the student to become 
famiharly acquainted with the leading principles of his pro- 
fession as they are mentioned, and secondly, to furnish him 
with as much advice and information as possible within the 
reasonable limits of the work. 

While it is a fact that some of the matter contained in this 
work is very simple, and all of it intended to be very plain, 
it yet remains true that the most expert living engineer was 
at one time ignorant of the least of the facts and principles 



INTRODUCTION. XI 



here given^ and at no time in his active career can he 
ever get beyond the necessity of knowing the primary steps 
by which he first achieved his success. 

The following taken from the editoral columns of the lead- 
ing mechanical journal of the country contains the same sug- 
gestive ideas already indicated in the "soliloquy of an engi- 
neer ;*' 

" There is amongst engineers in this country a quiet educational move^ 
ment going on in matters relating to facts and principles underlying their 
work that is likely to have an important influence on industrial affairs. 
This educational movement is noticeable in all classes of workmen, but 
amongst none more than among the men in charge of the power plantfc 
of the country. It is fortunate that this is so, for progress once begun 
in such matters is never likely to stop, 

*' Engineers comprise various grades from the chief engineer of some 
large establishment, who is usually an accomplished mechanic, carrying 
along grave responsibilities, to the mere stopper and starter, who is en- 
gineer by courtesy only, and whose place is likely to be soon filled by quite 
another man, so far as qualifications are concerned. Men ignorant of 
everything except the mere mechanical details of their work will soon 
have no place. 

" Scarcely a week passes that several questions are not asked by en- 
gineers, either of which could be made the subject of a lengthy article. 
This is of interest in that it shows that engineers, are not at the present 
time behind in the way of seeking information. Out of about a thousand 
questions that went into print, considerable more than half were asked by 
stationary engineers. These questions embrace many things in the way 
of steam engineering, steam engine management, construction, etc.*" 

The old meaning of the word lever was ** a lifter " and 
this book is intended to be to its attentive student, a real 
lever to advance him in his life work ; it is also to be used like 
a ladder, which is to be ascended step by step, the lower 
rounds of which, are as important as the highesto 

It is moreover, the earnest wish of the editor that when 
some, perchance may have '" climbed up" by the means of 
this, his work, they may in their turn serve as lifters to 
advance others, and by that means the benefits of the work 
widely extended. 



2;s^ 



MATERIALS. 



The things with which the engineer has to deal in 
that place where steam is to be produced as an 
industrial agent y are 

7. The Steam Generator, 
2. Air. 

J, Fuel, 

^, Water. 

J. Steam Appliances, 
Starting with these points which form a part of 
every steam, plants however lim^itedy however vast, 
the subject can easily be enlarged until it em^braces a 
thousand varied divisions extending through all time 
and into every portion of the civilized world. 

It is within the scope of this work to so present the 
subjects specifiedy that the student may classify and 
arrange the m^atter into truly scientific order. 



Maxims and Irutructions, 



13 



MATERIALS. 

In entering the steam department, where he is to be employ- 
ed, the eye of the beginner is greeted with the sight of coal, 
water, oil, etc., and he is told of invisible materials, such as 
air, steam and gases; it is the proper manipulation of these 
seen and unseen material products as well as the machines, 
that is to become his life task. In aiding to the proper 
accomplishment of the yet untried problems nothing can be 
more useful than to know something of the nature and 
history of the different forms of matter entering into the 
business of steam production. Let us begin with 

Coal. 

The source of all the power in the steam engine is stored 
up in coal in the form of heat. 

And this heat becomes effective by burning it, that is, by its 
combustion. 

Coal consists of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen 
and ash. These elements exist in all coals but in varying 
quantities. 

These are the common proportions of the best sorts: 





ANTHRACOTQ 


BITUMINOUS 


WOOD 

(average) 

DRY. 


Peat 


PEAT 

i 
WATER 


Carbon . . . 


90i 


81 


60 


69 


44 


Hydrogen . 


8i 


6i 


6 


6 


^\ 


Nitrogen . . 


Oi 


1 


1 


ii 


1 


Sulphur . . . 


00 


14- 





? 


(35) 


Oxygen. .. 


34 


6| 


41 


30 


22i 


Ash 


4i 


4| 


2 


3J 


a 




100 


100 


100 


100 


100 



1^ Maxims and Instructions, 



MATERIALS. 

It is fonnd that in burning one lb. of coal one hundred and 
fifty cubic feet of air must be used and in every day practice it 
is necessary to supply twice as much ; this is supplied to the 
coal partly through the grate bars, partly through the per- 
forated doors, and the different devices for applying it already 
heated to the furnace. 

WOOD. 

Wood as a combustible^ is divisible into two classes : isi, the 
hard, compact and comparatively heavy, such as oak, ash, 
beech, elm. 2d, the light colored soft, and comparatively light 
woods as pine, birch, poplar. 

Wood when cut down contains nearly half moisture and 
when kept in a dry place, for several years even, retains from 
15 to 20 per cent, of it. 

The steam producing power of wood by tests has been found 
to be but little over half that of coal and the more water in it 
the less its heating power. In order to obtain the most heating 
power from wood it is tiie practice in some works in Europe 
where fuel is costlj, to dry the wood fuel thoroughly, even 
using stoves for the purpose, before using it. This **hmt" 
may serve a good purpose on occasion. 

The composition of wood reduced to its eiemcntary condition 
will be found in the table with coal. 

PEAT. 

Peat is the organic matter or vegetable soil of bogs, swamps 
and marshes — decayed mosses, coarse grasses, etc. The peat 
next the surface, less advanced in decomposition, is hght, 
spongy and fibrous, of a yellow or light reddish-brown color; 
lower down it is more compact, of a darker-brown color, and in 
the lowest strata it is of a blackish brown, or almost a black 
color, of a pitchy or unctuous feel. 

Peat in its natural condition generally contains from 75 to 
80 per cent, of water. It sometimes amounts to 85 or 90 per 
cent, in which case the peat is of the consistency of mire. 

When wet peat is milled or ground so that the fibre is 
broken, crushed or cut, the contraction in drying is much 



Maxims ancC Instructions^ 1$ 

MATERIALS. 

increased by this treatment ;• and the peat becomes denser, and 
is better consolidated than when it is dried as it is cat from the 
bog; peat so prepared is known as condensed peat, and the 
degree of condensation varies according to the natural heaviness 
of the peat. So effectively is peat consolidated and condensed 
by the simple process of breaking the fibres whilst wet, that no 
merely mechanical force of compression is equal to it. 

In the table the elements of peat are presented in two con- 
ditions. One perfectly dried into a powder before analyzing 
and the other with 25 per cent, of moisture. 

The value of peat as a fuel of the future is an interesting 
problem in view of the numerous inroads made upon our great 
natural coal fields. 

TAK. 

Tan, or oak bark, after having been used in the process of 
tanning is burned as fuel. The spent tan consists of the fibrous 
portion of the bark. Five parts of oak bark produce four parts 
of dry tan. 

STRAW. 

Two compositions of straw (as a fuel) is as follows : 
Water, , . - ^ - 14 per cent. 
Combustible matter, - - - 79 ** 
Ash, - . , - - 7 « 

COKE, CHARCOAL, PEAT CHARCOAL. 

These are similar substances produced by like processes from 
coal, wood, and peat and they vary in their steam-producing 
power according to the power of the fuels from which they are 
produced. The method by which they are made is termed 
carbonization, which means that all the gases are removed by 
heat in closed vessels or heaps, leaving only the carbon and the 
more solid parts like ashes. 

LIQUID AND GAS FI7EL8» 

Under this head come petroleum and coal gas, which are ob- 
tained in great variety and varying value from coal and coal 
oil. The heating power of these fuels stands iT>. the front rajxk* 
as will be seen by the table annexed. 



i6 Maxims and Instructions^ 

MATERIALS. 

There are kinds of fuel other than coal, such as wood, coke, 
sawdust, tan bark, peat and petroleum oil and the refuse from 
oil. These are all burned with atmospheric air ol which the 
oxygen combines with the combustible part of the fuel while 
the nitrogen passes off into the chimney as waste. 

The combustible parts of coal are carbon, hydrogen and 
sulphur and the unburnable parts are nitrogen, water and the 
incombustible solid matters such as ashes and cinder. In the 
operation of firing under a boiler the three first elements are 
totally consumed and form heat ; the nitrogen, and water in 
the form of steam, escapes to the flue, and the ashes and cinders 
fall under the grates. 

The anthracite coal retain their shape while burning, though 
if too rapidly heated they fall to pieces. The flame is gener 
ally short, of a blue color. The coal is ignited with difficulty ; 
it yields an intense local or concentrated heat ; and the com- 
bustion generally becomes extinct while yet a considerable 
quantity of the fuel remains on the grate. 

The dry or free burning bituminous coals are rather lighter 
than the anthracites, and they soon and easily arrive at the 
burning temperature. They swell considerably in coking, and 
thus is facilitated the access of air and the rapid and complete 
combustion of their fixed carbon. 

The method of firing with different sorts of fuel will be 
treated elsewhere. 

AIR. 

The engineer's success in the management of the furnace 
depends quite as much upon his handling the air in the right 
mixtures and proportions as it does in his using the fuel — for 

1. Although invisible to the eye air is as much a material 
substance as coal or stone. If there were an opening into the 
interior of the earth which would permit the air to descend its 
density would increase in the same manner at it diminishes in 
the opposite direction. At the depth of about 34 miles it 
would be as dense as water, and at the depth of 48 miles it 
would be as dense as quicksilver, and at the depth of about 50 
miles as dense as gold. 



Maxims and Instructions, 77 

MATERIALS. 

2. Air is not only a substance^, but an impenetrable body; as 
for example : if we make a hollow cylinder, smooth and closed 
at the bottom, and put a stopper or solid piston to it, no force 
will enable us to bring it into contact with the bottom of the 
cylinder, unless we permit the air within it to escape, 

3. Air is a fluid which is proved by the great movability of 
its parts, flowing in all directions in great hurricanes and in 
gentle breezes ; and also by the fact that a pressure or blow is 
propagated through all parts and affects all parts alike. 

4. It is also an elastic fluids thus when an inflated bladder is 
compressed it immediately restores itself to its former situa 
tion ; indeed, since air when compressed restores itself or tends 
to restore itself, with the same force as that with which it is 
compressed, it is a perfectly elastic body. 

5. The weight of a column of air one square foot at the 
bottom is found to be 2156 lbs. or very nearly 15 lbs. to the 
square inch, hence it is common to state the pressure of the 
atmosphere as equal to 15 lbs. to the square inch. 

It follows from these five points that the engineer must con- 
sider air as a positive, although unseen, factor with which his 
work is to be accomplished. 

What air is composed of is a very important item of knowl- 
edge. It is made of a mixture of two invisible gases whose 
minute and inconceivably small atoms are mingled together 
like a parcel of marbles and ballets — that is while together 
they do not lose any of their distinctive qualities. The two 
gases are called nitrogen and oxygen, and of 100 parts or 
volumes of air 79 parts are of nitrogen and 21 parts of oxygen ; 
but by weight (for the oxygen is the heaviest) 77 of nitrogen 
and 23 of oxygen. 

The oxygen is the part that furnishes the heat by uniting 
with the coal — indeed without it the process of combustion 
would be impossible : of the two gases the oxygen is burned in 
the furnace, more or less imperfectly, and the nitrogen is wasted. 



j8 Maxims and Instrucaons. 



MATERIALS. 



Table of Evaporattoit. 

In order to arrive at the money value of the various fuels 
heretofore described a method of composition has been arrived 
at which gives very accurately their comparative worth. The 
rule is too advanced for this elementary work, but the follow- 
ing results are plainly to be understood, and will be found to be 
of value. 

Lbs. of Fuel. Temperature of Water 212® 

Coal, - " - 14.62 lbs of Water. 

Coke, - . - - 14.02 

Wood, . - - 8.07 

Wood; 25^ of water, - - 6.05 " 

Wood Charcoal - - 13.13 " 

Peat, perfectly dry, - - 10.30 " 

Peat, with 25^ moisture - 7.41 

Peat, Charcoal (dry) - - 12.76 

Tan, dry, - - - 6.31 

Tan, 30^ moisture, ~ - 4.44 

Petroleum, - - 20.33 
Coal gas 1 lb. or (31J cut feet) 47.51 

The way to read this table is as follows : *' one lb. coal has 
an average evaporative capacity of 14.tVb lbs. of water,'' or 

One lb. of peat with one-quarter moisture will evaporate, if 
all the heat is utilized 7.tVi5 lbs. of water. 

In practice but little over half of these results are attained, 
but for a matter of comparison of the value of one kind of fuel 
with another the figures are of great value ; a boiler burning 
wood or tan needs to be much larger than one burning 
petroleum cil. 



« 






<f 



Maxims and Instructions, 



19 



FIRE IRONS. 

The making or production of steam requires the handling of 
the fuel, more or less, until its destruction is complete, leaving 
nothing behind in the boiler room, except ashes and clinkers. 
The principal tools used by the attendant, to do the task most 
efficiently are : 1. The scoop shovel. 2. The poker. 3. The 
slice bar. 4. The barrow. 




Fig. 1. 
Fig. 1. represents the regular scoop shovel commonly called 
'*'a coal shovel,'' but among railroad men and others, known 
as a locomotive or charging scoop. The cut also represents a 
regular sliovel. Both these are necessary for the ordinary 
business of the boiler room. 





6 




Fig. 3. 
In cut 2 are represented a furnace poker. A, and two forms 
of the slice bar. They are all made by blacksmiths from 
round iron, some 7 or 8 feet long and only vary in the form of 
the end. The regular slice bar is shown in C, Fig. 2 ; and 
" the dart '' a special form used largely on locomotives is 
shown in B. 



20 



Maxims and Instruch'ons. 



FIRE IRONS. 

The dexterous use of these important implements can merely 
be indicated in print, as it is part of the trade which is 
imparted by oral instruction. One ^' point '' in making the 
slice bar may be mentioned to advantage — the lower side should 
be perfectly flat so that it may slide on the surface of the grate 
bars as it is forced beneath the fire — and the upper portion of 
the edge should be in the shape of a half wedge, so as to crowd 
upwards the ashes and clinkers while the lower portion slides 
along. 

There is sometimes used in connection with these tools an 
appliance called a Lazy Bar. This is very useful for the fire- 
man when cleaning a bituminous or other coal fire : it saves 
both time and fuel as well as steam. It is a hook shaped iron, 
ingeniously attached above the furnace door, so that it supports 
the principal part of the weight of the heavy slice bar or poker 
when being used in cleaning out the fires 




Fig. a 

Equally necessary to the work of the boiler-room is the 
barrow shown in cut. There are many styles of the vehicle 
denominated respectively — the railroad barrow, the ore and 
stone barrow, the dirt barrow, etc.; but the one represented in 
fig. 3 is the regular coal barrow. 

In conveying coal to ''batteries'* of boilers, in gas houses 
and other suitable situations the portable car and iron track 
are nearly always used instead of the barrow. In feeding fur- 
naces with saw dust and shavings large iron screw conveyors 
are frequently employed, as well as blowers — In the hand- 
ling of the immense quantities of fuel required, the real ingenu- 
ity of the engineer in charge has ample opportunity for exercise. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



21 



FIRE IRONS. 

There are also used in nearly all boiler rooms hoes made of 
heavy plate iron, with handles similar to those shown in the cuts 
representing the slice bar and poker. A set of two to four 
hoes of various sizes is a very convenient 
addition to the list of fire tools ; a light gar 
den hoe for handling ashes is not to be omit- 
ted as a labor saving tool. 



Fig. 4. 



HANDY TOOLS. 

Besides the foregoing devices for conduct- 
ing the preliminary process of the steam 
generation, the attendant should have close 
at hand a servicable hai^T) hammek, a 
SLEDGE for breaking coal and siaiilar work, 
and A SCREW wrekch and also a light 
LADDER for use about the boiler and shafting. 

In addition to these there are various 
other things almost essential for the proper 
doing of the work of the boiler room, — Fire 
AND Water Pails, Lanterns, Rubber 
Hose, etc., which every wise steam user will 
provide of the best quality and which the 
engineer will as carefully keep in their ap- 
pointed places ready for instant service. 



To these familiar tools can be added files, lace gutters, 
boiler-flue brushes, stock and dies, pipe-tongs, screw 
JACKS, VISES, etc., all of which when used with skill and upon 
right occasion paj a large return on their cost. 



22 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE TOOL BOX 

The complex operations of the boiler room, its emergencies 
and varying conditions demand the nse of many implements 
which might at first thought be out of place. The following 
illustrations exhibit some of these conveniences. 




-t^ig. 5. 
Fig. 5, letter A, show the common form of compasses which 
are made from 3 to 8 inches long. Letter B, illustrates the 
common steel compass dividers, which are made from 5 to 24 
inches in length. 




Fig. 6. 
In this illustration, A exhibits double, inside and outside 
Calipees ; B, adjustable outside Calipers ; 0, inside ; and D 
outside, plain calipers. 



Maxims and histrtictions. 



23 



THE TOOL BOX. 




VsjSSi)*' t;:Jsi)^ 









^4 Maxims and Instructions. 



THE FIRING OF STEAM BOILERS. 



The care and management of a steam boiler comprises three 
things : 

1. The preparation, which includes the partial filling with 
water and the kindling of the fire. 

2. The running, embracing the feeding, firing and extinc- 
tion or banking of the fire. 

3. The cleaning out after it has been worked for some time. 

To do this to the best advantage, alike to owner and em- 
ployee, can be learned only by practice under the tuition of an 
experienced person. The '' trick " or unwritten science of the 
duties of the skillful fireman must be communicated to the be- 
ginner, by already experienced engineers or firemen or from 
experts who have made the matter a special study. Let it he 
understood that the art of ping cannot be self taught. 

The importance of this knowledge is illustrated by a remark^ 
able difference shown in competitive tests m Germany between 
trained and nntrained firemen in the matter of securing a high 
evaporation per pound of coal. The trained men succeeded in 
evaporating 11 lbs. of water, as against 6.89 lbs. which was the 
best that the untrained men could obtain. 

It is certain that a poor fireman is a dear man at any price, 
and that a competent one maybe cheap at twice the wages now 
paid. Suppose, for instance, a man who burns three tons a 
day is paid $-^.00 for such service, and that in so doing he is 
wasting as little as 10 per cent. If the coal cost 1-^ oO per ton 
the loss will be $1.35 per day, or what is equivalent, '•ying 

a man $3.35 per day who can save this amount. 

The late Chief Engineer of Philadelphia Water Works 
effected an annual saving to the city of something like $50,000 ; 
and recently the weekly consumption of a well established 
woolen mill was reduced from 71 to 49 tons, a clear saving of 
22 tons by careful attention to this point. 



Maxims and Instructions. 2^ 



THE FIRING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

It is apparent that any rules or directions which might be 
given for one system would not apply equally to other forms of 
boilers and this may be the principal reason that the art is one 
so largely of personal instruction. Some rules and hints will, 
however, be given to the beginner, which may prove of advan- 
tage in fitting the fireman for an advanced position ; or to 
assure him permanence in his present one. 

No two toilers alike. It is said that no two boilers, even 
though they seemed to be exactly alike — absolute duplicates — 
ever did the same, or equal service. Every steam boiler, like 
every steam engine, has an individuality of its own, with which 
the person in charge has to become acquainted, in order to 
obtain the best results from it. 

The unlikeness in the required care of steam engines which 
seem to be exactly the same, is still more marked in the 
different skill and experience demanded in handling locomo- 
tive, marine, stationary, portable boilers and other forms of 
steam generators, 

Beeoee Lighting the Fire under the boiler in the morning, 
the engineer or fireman should make a rapid yet diligent 
examination of various things, yiz. : 1. He should make sure 
that the boiler has the right quantity of water in it— that it has 
not run out during the night or been tampered with by some 
outside party ; very many boilers have been ruined by neglect- 
ing this first simple precaution. 2. He should see that the 
safety-valve is in working order ; this is done by lifting by rod 
or hand the valve which holds the weight upon the safety 
valve rod. 3, He should open the upper gauge-cock to let out 
the air from the boiler while the steam is forming. 4. He 
should ;' '^iiine the condition of the grate-bars and see that no 
clin. _ and but few ashes are left from last night's firing. 5. 
And finally, after seeing that everything is in good shape, pro- 
ceed to build the fire as follows : 

Ok Lighting the Fire. When quite certain that every- 
thing is in good condition, put a good armful of shavings 
or fine wood upon the grate, then upon this some larger 
pieces of wood to form a bed of coalsj and then a little of 



26 



Maxims and Instructi07ii>, 



the fuel that is to be used while running. Sometimes it 
is better to light before putting on the regular fuel, but 
in any case give it plenty of air. Close the fire doors, 
and open the ash pit, giving the chimney full draught. 

When the fire is well ignited, throw in some of the regular 
fuel, and when this is burning add more, a little at a time, and 
continue until the fire is in its normal condition, taking care, 
however, not to let it burn too freely for fear of injury to the 
sheets by a too rapid heating. 

It is usually more convenient to light the fire through the 
fire door, but where this cannot be done, a torch may be used 
beneath the grates, or even a light fire of shavings may be 
kindled in the ash pit. 

At the time of lighting, all the draughts should be wide open. 

As soon as the steam is seen to issue from the open upper 
gauge-cock it is proof that the air is out. It should now be 
closed and the steam gauge will soon indicate a rise in tem- 
perature. 

When the steam begins to rise it should next be observed 
that : 1. All the cocks and valves are in working order — that 
they move easily. 2. That all the joints and packings are 
tight. 

In the following two cuts are exhibited in an impressive way 
the difference between proper and improper firing. 




j^ig. 



Fig. 1 represents the proper mode of keeping an even depth 
of coal on the grate bars ; the result of which will be, a 
uniform generation of gas throughout the charge, and a 
uniform temperature in the flues. 



Maxims and Instructions 



27 



THE FIRING OF STEAM BOILEIS. 




Fig. 2. 

Fig. 2 represents a very frequent method of feeding fur- 
naces ; charging the front half as high, and as near the door, 
as possible, leavina: the bridge end comparatively bare. The 
result necessarily is that more air obtains access through the 
uncovered bars than is required, which causes imperfect com- 
bustion and consequent waste. 

The duties of the fireman in the routine of the day may thus 
be summed up : 

1st. — Begin io charge the furnace at the bridge end and 
keep firing to within a feio inches of the dead plate. 

2d. — Never allow the fire to he so low before afresh charge is 
throion in, thai there shall not he at least three to five inches 
deep of clean, incandescent fuel on the bars, and equally spread 
over the whole. 

3d. — Keep the bars constantly and equally covered, par- 
ticularly at the sides and the bridge end, where the fuel burns 
away most rapidly. 

4th. — If the fuel burns unequally or into holes, it must be 
leveled, and the vacant spaces must be filled, 

5th. — The large coals must be broken into pieces not bigger 
than a man's fist, 

6th. — When the ash pit is shallow, it must be the more fre- 
quently cleared out. A body of hot cinders, beneath them, 
overheats and burns the bars. 

7th. — The fire must not be hurried too much, but should be 
left to increase in intensity gradually. When fired properly 
the fuel is consumed in the best possible way, no more being 
burned than is needed for producing a sufficient quantity of 
steam and keeping the steam pressure even. 



28 Maxhns and Instructions, 



DIEECTIONS FOR FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

Fiki:n"G Boilers Newly Set, etc. — Boilers newly set should 
be heated up very slowly indeed, and the fires should not bo 
lighted under the boilers for at least two weeks after setting, if 
it is possible to wait this length of time. This two weeks en- 
ables all parts of the mason work to set gradually and harden 
naturally ; the walls will be much more likely to remain perfect 
than when fires are lighted while the mortar is yet green. 

"When fire is started under a new boiler the first time^ it 
should be a very small one, and no attempt should be made to 
do more than moderately warm all parts of the brick work. A 
slow fire should be kept up f^ r twenty-four hours, and on the 
second day it may bo slightly increased. Three full days should 
elapse before the boiler is allowed to make any steam at all. 

When the pressure rises, it should not be allowed to go above 
four or five pounds, and the safety valve weight should be taken 
off to prevent any possibility of an increase. Steam should be 
allowed to go throuo-h all the pipes attached for steaui, and 
blow through the engine b( f ore any attem])t is made to get 
pressure on them. The object of all these precautions and 
this care is to prevent injury by sudden expansion, which 
may cause great damage. 

Firing with Coke. 

Coke, in order to be completely consumed, needs a greater 
volume of air per pound of fuel than coal. Theoretically it 
needs from 9 to 10 lbs. of air to burn a pound of coal, and 12 
to 13 lbs. of air to burn a pound of coke. 

Coke, therefore, requires a more energetic draft, which is 
increased by the fact that it can only burn economically in a 
thick bed. It is also necessary to take into account the size of 
the pieces. 

The ratio between the heating and grate surface should be 
less with coke than with coal ; that is to say, the grate should 
be larger. 

The difference amounts to about 33 per cent. In fact, 



Maxims and Instructions^ 2g 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

about 9| lbs. of coke should be burned per hour on each square 
foot of grate area, while at least 14|- lbs. of coal can be burned 
upon the same space. 

The high initial temperature which is developed by the com- 
bustion of coke requires conducting walls. Therefore the fur- 
nace should not be entirely surrounded by masonry ; and the 
plates of the boiler should form at least the crown of the fire- 
box. In externally fired boilers, the furnace should be located 
beneath and not in front of the boiler. Internal fire-boxes 
may be used, but the greatest care should be exercised to avoid 
any incrustation of the plates, and in order that this may be 
done, only the simplest forms of boilers should be used. With 
coke it is not essential that long passages should bo provided 
for the passage of the products of combustion, since the greater 
part of the heat developed is transmitted to the sheets in the 
neighborhood of the furnace. 

Since coke contains very little hydrogen, the quick flaming 
combustion which characterizes coal is not produced, but the fire 
is more even and regular. And, finally, the combustion of coal 
is distinguished by the fact that in the earlier phases there is 
usually an insufficiency of air, while in the last there is no 
excess. 

The advantage of coke over raw soft coal as a fuel is that 
otherwise useless slack can be made available by admixture in 
its manufacture, and especially that it can be perfectly and 
smokelessly burnt without the need of skilled labor. And we 
cannot doubt that the public demand for a clear and healthy 
atmosphere will finally result in the almost complete substitu- 
tion of coke fuel for soft lump coal. 

Sixteen Steam Boilers in a large mill in Massachusetts 
of 54 and 60 inches in diameter are fired as follows : 

There are three separate batteries ; one of five boilers, one 
of eight and one of three. Each boiler is fired every five 
minutes. There are two firemen for the battery of twelve and 



JO Maxims and Instructions. 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

one for each of the others. A gong in each fire-room is operated 
by electricity in connection with a clock. The duty of the fire- 
man is this, that when the gong strikes he commences at one 
end of his fire-room and fires as rapidly as possible, opening one- 
half of each furnace door. The coal is thrown only on one- 
half of the grate space as he rapidly fires each boiler, the other 
half is covered at the next sounding of the gong. The old 
style of straight grate is used. The fires are kept six inches 
thick or a little thicker. No slicing is done. It is, of course, 
to be understood that the firemen arrange the quantity of coal 
fired according to the apparent necessity of the case. Bitum- 
inous coal is used, and it is broken into small pieces^ so as to 
distribute well. Accurate account is kept of the quantity of 
coal used and the engines are frequently indicated. 

Twenty Horse Power. — An old engineer says the way 
he handled his boiler of this size, burning 800 lbs. of screen- 
ings per day, is as follows : 

My method is to run as heavy a fire as my fire-box will allow 
to be kept under the bridge wall, and not to disturb it more 
than once in a ten-hours run, then clean out with care and as 
speedily as possible, dress light and let it come up and get 
ready to bank. In banking I make sure to have an even fire, 
as deep as the bridge wall will allow. Then I shut my 
dampers and let it lie. In the morning I open and govern by 
the dampers. I do not touch my fire until 3.30 or 4 o'clock in 
the afternoon, and then proceed to clean as before. 

FiRiiq^G WITH Coal Tar. — The question of firing retort 
benches with tar instead of coke has engaged the attention 
of gas managers for many years, and various modes have 
been adopted for its management. The chief difficulty has 
been in getting a constant flow of tar into the furnace, 
uninterrupted by stoppages caused by the regulating cock 
or other appliance not answering its purpose and by the 
carbonizing of the tar in the delivery pipe, thus choking it 
up and rendering it uncertain in action. To obviate these 



Maxims and Instructions. j/ 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

difficulties various plans have been resorted to, but the best 
means for overcoming them are thus described ; fix the tar 
supply tank as near the furnace to be supplied as convenient, 
and one foot higher than the tar-injector inlet. A cock is 
screwed into the side of the tank, to which is attached a piece 
of composition pipe f-inch in diameter, ten inches long. To 
this a ^-inch iron service pipe is connected, the other end of 
which is joined to the injector. By these means it is found 
that at the ordinary temperature of the tar well (cold weather 
excepted) four gallons of tar per hour are delivered in a con- 
stant steam into the furnace. If more tar is required, the piece 
of f -inch tube must be shortened, or a larger tube substituted, 
and if less tar is required it must be lengthened. The risk of 
stoppage in the nozzle of the injector is overcome by the steam 
jet, which scatters the tar into spray and thus keeps everything 
clear. Trouble being occasioned by the retorts becoming too 
hot, in which case, on shutting off the flow of tar for a while, 
the tar in the pipe carbonized and caused a stoppage, a remov- 
able plug injector is fitted and ground in like the plug of a 
cock, having inlets on either side for tar and steam. This plug 
injector can be removed, the tar stopped in two seconds and 
refixed in a similar time. The shell of the injector is firmly 
bolted to the top part of the door frame. The door is swung 
horizontally, having a rack in the form of a quadrant, by which 
it is regulated to any required height, and to admit any 
quantity of aire 

Firing with Straw. — The operation of burning straw un- 
der a boiler consists in the fuel being fed into the furnace only 
as fast as needed. When the straw is handled right, it makes 
a beautiful and very hot fiame and no smoke is seen com- 
ing from the stack. The whole secret of getting the best 
results from this fuel is to feed it into the furnace in a gradual 
ritream as fast as consumed. When this is done complete com- 
bustion is the result. A little hole maybe drilled in the smoke- 
box door, so that the color of the fire can be seen and fire is 
handled accordingly. When the smoke comes from the stack 
the color of the flame is that of a good gas jet. By feeding a 



32 Maxims and InstrMctions. 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

little faster the color becomes darker and a little smoke comes 
from the stack ; feeding a little faster the flame gets quite dark 
and the smoke blacker ; faster still, the flame is extinguished, 
clouds of black smoke come from the stack, and the pressure is 
falling rapidly. 

FiRiKG WITH Oil.— Great interest is now manifested in the 
use of oil as fuel. There are various deyices used for this pur- 
pose, most of them depending upon a steam jet to atomize the 
oil, or a system of retorts to first heat the oil and convert it 
into gas, before being burned. 

Another method in successful operation is the use of com- 
pressed air for atomizing the oil — air being the element nature 
provides for the complete combustion of all matter. The 
cleanliness of the latter system and its comparative freedom 
from any odor of oil or gas and its perfect combustion, all re- 
commend it. Among the advantages claimed for the use of oil 
over coal are 1, uniform heat ; 2, constant pressure of steam ; 3, 
no ashes, clinkers, soot or smoke, and consequently clean flues; 
4, uniform distribution of heat and therefore less strain upon 
the plates. 

FiRii^G oiq- AK OcEAiT Steamer like the ''TJmlria."—'YhQ 
men come on in gangs of eighteen stokers or firemen and 
twelve coal passers, and the *' watch "" lasts four hours. The 
^' Umbria" has 72 furnaces, which require nearly 350 tons of 
coal a day, at a cost of almost 120,000 per voyage. One hun- 
dred and four men are employed to man the furnaces, and 
they have enough to do. They include the chief engineer, his 
three assistants, and ninety stokers and coal passers. 

The stoker comes to work wearing only a thin undershirt, 
light trousers and wooden shoes. On the '* Umbria'' each 
stoker tends four furnaces. He first rakes open the furnaces, 
tosses in the coal, and then cleans the fire; that is, pries the 
coal apart with a heavy iron bar, in order that the fire may 
burn freely. He rushes from one furnace to another, spending 
perhaps two or three minutes at each. Then he dashes to the 
air pipe, takes his turn at cooling off, and waits for another 



Maxims and Instructions, JJ 

FIRI:^Ta with various fuels. 

call to his furnace, which comes speedily. When the *^ watch ^^ 
is over, the men schuffle off, dripping with sweat from head to 
foot, through long, cold galleries to the forecastle, where they 
turn in for eight hours. Four hours of scorching and eight 
hours sleep make up the routine of a fireman^'s life on a 
voyage. 

The temperature is ordinarily 120°, but sometimes reaches 
1G0°; and the work is then terribly hard. The space between 
the furnaces is so narrow that when the men throw in coal they 
must take care when they swing back their shovels, lest they 
throw their arms on the furnace back of them. 

In- a recent trial of a government steamer the men worked 
willingly in a temperature of 175°, which, however, rose to 212° 
or the heat of boiling water. The shifts of four hours were 
reduced to 2 hours each, but after sixteen men had been 
prostrated, the whole force of thirty-six men refused to submit 
to the heat any longer and the trial was abandoned. 

There is no place on ocean or land where more suffering is 

inflicted and endured by huuian beings than in these h 

holes, quite properly so called ; it is to be hoped that the efforts 
towards reform in the matter will not cease until completely 
successful. 

Piei:n"G of Sawdust aitd Shavikgs. — *^The air was forced 
into the furnace with the planer shavings at a velocity of about 
12 feet per second, and at an average temperature of about 60 
degrees Fahrenheit. The shavings were forced through a pipe 
12 inches in diameter, above grate, into the combustion chamber. 
The pipe had a blast gate to regulate the air in order to main- 
tain a pressure in the furnace, which a little more than bal- 
anced the ascending gases in the funnel or chimney. All 
the fireman had to do was to keep the furnace doors closed and 
watch the water in the gauges of his boiler. The combustion 
in the furnace was complete, as no smoke was visible. The 
shavings were forced into the combustion chamber in a spray- 
like manner, and were caught into a blaze the moment they 
entered. The oxygen of the air so forced into the furnace 
along with the shavings gave full support to the combustion. 



34 



Maxims and Instructions, 



X 



FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

The amount of shavings consumed by being thus forced into 
the furnace was about fifty per cent, less than the amount 
consumed when the fireman had to throw them in with his 
shovel ." 

It is an important ''point** 
when burning shavings or saw- 
dust with a blast, to keep the 
blower going without cessation, 
as there have been disastrous 
accidents caused by the flames 
going up the shutes, thence 
through the small dust tubes 
leading from the bin to the 
various machines. 



n 







uz 



I 



Fig. 9. 

In firing ''shavings*' by hand it is necessary to burn 
them from the top as otherwise the fire and heat are only pro- 
duced when all the shavings are charred. To do this, provide 
a half-inch gas pipe, to be used as a light poker; light the 
shaving fire, and when nearly burned take the half-inch pipe 
and divide the burning shavings through the middle, banking 

tbem against the side-walls, as 
shown in Fig. 9. Now feed a 
pile of new shavings into the 
centre on the clean grate bars, 
as shown in Fig. 10, and close 
the furnace doors. The 
shavings will begin to burn 
from above, lighted from the 
two side fires, the air will pass 
Fig. 10. through the bars into the shav- 

ings, where it will be heated and unite with the gas, making 
the combustion perfect, generating heat, and no smoke, and the 
fire will last much longer and require not half the labor in 
stoking. 




Maxims and Instructions^ 



35 



FIRING A LOCOMOTIVE. 




This figure exhibits the interior of the furnace of a locomo- 
tive engine, which varies greatly from the furnace of either a 
land or marine boiler. This difference is largely caused by the 
method of applying the draught for the air supply; in the 
Jocomotive this is effected by conducting the exhaust steam 
through pipes from the cylinders to the smoke-box and allow- 
ing it to escape up the smoke stack from apertures called 
exhaust nozzles; the velocity of the steam produces a vacuum, 
by which the products of combustion are drawn into the smoke- 
box with great power and forced out of the smoke stack into 
the open air. 



To prevent the too quick passage of the gases into the flues 
an appliance called a fire brick arch has been adopted and has 
proved very efficient. In order to be self supporting it is built 
in the form of an arch, supported by the two sides of the fire 
box which serve for abutments. The arch has been sometimes 
replaced by a hollow riveted arrangement called a water table 
designed to increase the fire surface of the boiler. 



j6 Maxims and Instructions. 



FOimG A LOCOMOTIVE. 

FiRiKG A Locomotive. ^No rules can possibly be given fot 
firing a locomotive which would not be more misleading than 
helpful. This is owing to the great variations which exist in 
the circumstances of the use of the machine, as well as the 
differences which exist in the various types of the locomotive. 

These variations may be alluded to/but not wholly described. 
1. They consist of the sorts of fuel used in different sections of 
the country and frequently on different ends of the same rail- 
road; hard coal, soft coal, and wood all require different man- 
agement in the furnace. 2. The speed and weight of the train, 
the varying number of cars and frequency of stopping places, 
all influence the duties of the fireman and tax his skill. 3. The 
temperature of the air, whether cold or warm, dry weather or 
rain, and night time and day time each taxes the skill of the 
fireman. 

Hence, to be an experienced fireman in one section of the 
country and under certain circumstances does not warrant the 
assurance of success under other conditions and in another loca- 
tion. The subject requires constant study and operation 
among not only " new men " but those longest in the service. 

More than in any other case to be recalled, must the fireman 
of a locomotive depend upon the personal instruction of the 
engineer in charge of the locomotive. 

FiRiKG WITH Tai^ Bark. — Tan bark can be burned upon 
common grates and in the ordinary furnace by a mixture of 
bituminous screenings. One shovel full of screenings to four or 
five of bark will produce a more economical result than the tan 
bark separate, as the coal gives body to the fire and forms a hot 
clinker bed upon which the bark may rest without falling 
through the spaces in the grate bars, and with the coal, id ore 
air can be introduced to the furnace. 

The above relates to common furnaces, but special fire boxes 
have been recently put into operation, fed by power appli- 
ances, which work admirably. The *' point" principally to be 
noted as to the efficacy of tan bark as a fuel, is to the effect, 
that like peat, the drier it is the more valuable is it as a fuel . 



Maxims and Instructions, j>7 

POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

The Process of Boilixg. Let it be remembered that the 
boiling spoken of so often is really caused bj the formation of 
the steam particles, and that without the boiling there can be 
but a very slight quantity of steam produced. 

While pure water boils at :i 12°, if it is saturated with common 
salt, it boils only on attaining 'l%^° , alum boils at 220°, sal 
ammoniac at 236°, acetate of soda at 256", pure nitric acid boils 
at 248^^, and pure sulphuric acid at 620°. 

On the First Application of Heat to water small bubbles 
soon begin to form and rise to the surface ; these consist of air, 
which all water contains dissolved in it. When it reaches the 
boiling point the bubbles that rise in it are principally sttam. 

In the case of a new plant, or where the boiler has some 
time been idle it is frequently advisable to build a small fire in 
the base of the chimney before starting the boikr fires. This 
will serve to heat the chimney and drive out any moisture that 
may have collected in the interior and will frequently prevent 
the disagreeable smoking that often follows the building of a fire 
in the furnace. 

Always bear in mind that the steam in the boilers and 
engines is pressing outward on the walls that confine it in every 
direction ; and that the enormous forces you are handling, 
warn you to be careful. 

When starting fires close the gauge cocks and safety valve as 
soon as steam begins to form. 

Go slow. It is necessary to start all new boilers very slowly. 
The change from hot to cold is an immense one in itseffectson 
the contraction and expansion of the boiler, the change of 
dimension by expansion is a force of the greatest magnitude 
and cannot be over-estimated. Leaks which start m boilers 
that were well made and perfectly tight can be attributed to 
this cause. Something must give if fires are driven on the 
start, and this entails trouble and expense that there is no occa- 
sion for. This custom applies to engmos 'ind steam pipes as 
well as to boilers. No one of any experience will open a stop 
valve and let a full head of live steam into a cold line of pipe 
or a cold engine. 



j8 Afaxims and Instructions. 

POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

The preserve the grate bars from excessive heat, when first 
firing a boiler, it is well to sprinkle a thin la3^er of coal upon 
the grates before putting in the shavings and wood for starting 
the fire. This practice tends greatly to prolong the life of the 
grate-bars. 

The fuel should generally be dry when used. Hard coal, 
however, may be dampened a little to good advantage, as it is 
then less liable to crowd and will burn more freely. 

Air, high temperature and sufficient time are the principal 
points in firing a steam boiler. 

In first firing up make sure that the throttle valve is closed 
in order that the steam first formed may not pass over into 
the engine cylinder and fill it with water of condensation. If 
the throttle valve leak steam it should be repaired at the first 
opportunity. 

Keep all heating surfaces free from soot and ashes. 

Radiant rays go in all directions, yet they act m the most 
eflicient manner when striking a surface exactly at a right 
angle to their line of movement. The sides of a fire-box are 
for that reason not as efiicient as the surface over the fire, 
and a flat surface over the fire is the best that can be had, so 
far as that fact alone is concerned. 

When combustion is completed in a furnace, then the balance 
of the boiler beyond the bridge wall can be utilized for taking 
up heat from the gases. The most of this heat has to be 
absorbed by actual contact ; thus by the tubes the gases are 
finally divided, allowing that necessary contact. 

Combustion should be completed on the grates for the 
reason that it can be effected there at the highest temperature. 
When this is accomplished, the fullest benefit is had from 
radiant heat striking the bottom of the boiler — it is Just there 
that the hulk of the ivork is done. 

There must necessarily be some waste of heat by its passing 
up the chimney to maintain draft. It is well to have the 



Maxims and Instructions. jg 



POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

gases, as they enter the chimney, as much below 600 deg. F. 
(down to near the temperature of the steam) as you can and 
yet maintain perfect combustion. 

Every steam engine has certain well-defined sounds in action 
which we call noises, for want of a better term, and it is upon 
them and their continuance that an engineer depends for as- 
surance that all is going well. 

This remark also applies to the steam boiler, which has, so 
to speak, a language of its own, varying in volume from 
the slight whisper which announces a leaking joint to the 
thunder burst which terribly follows a destructive explosion. 
The hoarse note of the safety-valve is none the less significant 
because common. 

The dampers and doors to the lurnace and ash-pit should 
always be closed after the fire has been drawn, in order to keep 
the heat of the boiler as long as possible. 

But the damper must never be entirely closed while there is 
fire on the grate, as explosions dangerous in their character 
might occur in the furnace from the accumulated gases. 

Flues or tubes should often be swept, as soot, in addition to 
its liability to becoming charged with a corroding acid, is a 
non-conductor of heat, and the short time spent in cleaning 
them will be repaid by the saving of labor in keeping up 
steam. In an establishment where they used but half a ton of 
bituminous coal per day, the time of raising steam in the 
morning was fifty per cent, longer when the tubes were 
unswept for one week than when they were swept three times 
a week. 

Smoke will not be seen if combustion is perfect* Good firing 
will abate most of the smoke. 

Coals, at the highest furnace temperature, radiate much 
heat, whereas gases ignited at and beyond the bridge wall 
radiate comparatively little heat — it is a law in nature for a 
aolid body highly heated to radiate heat to another solid body. 

Dey akd Cleak is the condition in which the boiler should 
be kept, i,e,, dry outside and clean both inside and out. 



^o Maxims and Instructions. 

POINTS EELATIXG TO FIRING. 

To haul his furnace fire and open the safety valve before 
seeking his own safety or the preservation of property, is the 
duty of the fireman in the event of fire threatening to burn a 
whole establishment. 

Many, now prominent, engineers have made their first rep- 
utation by remembering to do this at a critical time. 

Whek Water is Plumped into the boiler or allowed to run 
in, some opening must be given for the escape of the contained 
air; usually the most convenient way is to open the upper 
gauge cock after the fire has been lighted until cloudy steam 
begins to escape. 

In a summary of experiments made in England, it is stated 
that : — 

'^A moderately thick and hot fire with rapid draft uniformly 
gave the best results. 

*' Combustion of black smoke by additional air was a loss. 

*'In all experiments the highest result was always obtained 
when all the air was introduced through the fire bars. 

" Difference in mode of firing only may.produce a difference 
of 13 per cent, (in economy)." 

The thickness of the fire under the boiler should be in 
accordance with the quality and size of the fuel. For hard 
coal the fire should be as thin as possible, from three to six 
inches deep ; when soft coal is used, the fire should be thicker, 
from five to eight inches deep. 

If it is required to burn coal dust without any change of 
grates, wetting the coal is of advantage ; not that it increases 
its heat power, but because it keeps it from falling through 
the grates or going up the chimneys. The same is true of 
burning shavings ; by watering they are held in the furnace, 
and the firing is done more easily and with better results. 

Stihrii^g the Fire should be avoided as much as possible ; 
firing should be performed evenly and regularly, a little at a 
time, as it causes waste fuel to disturb the combustion and by 
making the fuel fall through the grates into the ash pit; 
hence do not '' clean " fires oftener than absolutely necessary. 



Maxims and Instructions. ^/ 



POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

The slower the velocity of the gases before they pass the 
damper, the more nearly can they be brought down to the 
temperature of the steam, hence with a high chimney and 
strong draft the dampers should be kept nearly closed, if 
the boiler capacity will permit it. 

No arbitrary rule can be laid down for keeping fires thick or 
thin. Under some conditions a thin fire is the best, under 
others a thick fire gives best economy. This rule, however, 
governs either case : you must have so active a fire as to give 
strong radiant heat. 

One of the highest aims of an expert fireman should be to 
keep the largest possible portion of his grate area in a condition 
to give great radiant heat the largest possible part of the day — 
using anthracite coal by firing light, quick and often, not 
covering all of the incandescent coals. Using bituminous 
coal, hand firing, by coking it very near the dead plate, 
allowing some air to go through openings in the door, and by 
pushing toward the bridge wall only live coals — when slicing, 
to open the door only far enough to work the bar; this is done 
with great skill in some cases. 

Eegulating the Draft. — This should be done so as to 
admit tJie exact quantity of air into the furnace, neither too 
much nor too little. It should be remembered that fuel can- 
not be burned without air and if too much air is admitted it 
cools the furnace and checks combustion. It is a good plan to 
decrease the draft when firing or cleaning out, by partly 
closing the damper or shutting off the air usually admitted 
from below the grates ; this is to have just draft enough to 
prevent the flame from rushing out when the door is opened. 

By luminous flame is generally meant that which burns with 
a bright yellow to white color. All flame under a boiler is not 
luminous, sometimes the whole or a part of it will be red or 
blue. The more luminous the flame, that is to say, the nearer 
white it is^ the better combustion. 



^2 Maxims and Instructions, 



RULES RELATING TO FIRING. 
To DETERMII^'E THE TEMPERATURE OF A FURN"ACE FIRE the 

following table is of use. The colors are to be observed and the 
corresponding degrees of heat will be approximately as follows : 

Faint red 960° F. 

Bright red 1,300° F. 

Cherry red 1,600° F. 

Dull orange , „ . . 2,000° F. 

Bright orange 2,100° F. 

White heat 2,400° F. 

Brilliant white heat 2,700° F. 

That is to say, when the furnace is at a ^^ white heat^' the 
heat equals 2,400 degrees Fahrenheit, etc. 

Another method of findmg the furnace heat is by submitting 
a small portion of a particular metal to the heat. 

Tin melts at 442° F. 

Lead '' " 617° F. 

Zinc '' '' • 700° F. nearly. 

Antimony melts at 810 to 1,150° F. 

Silver melts at 1,832 to 1,873° F. 

Cast Iron melts at 2,000° F. nearly. 

Steel " '' 2,500° F. '' 

Wrought Iron melts at 2,700° F. *« 

Hammered Iron melts at 2,900° F. ** 

FOAMING m BOILERS. 

The causes are — dirty water, trying to evaporate more water 
than the size and construction of the boiler is intended for, 
taking the steam too low down, insufficient steam room, imper- 
fect construction of boiler, too small a steam pipe and some- 
times it is produced by carrying the water line too high. 

Too little attention is paid to boilers with regard to their 
evaporating power. Where the boiler is large enough for the 
water to circulate, and there is surface enough to give off the 
steam, foaming never occurs. 

As the particles of the steam have to escape to the surface of 
the water in the boiler, unless that is in proportion to the 
amount of steam to be generated, it will be delivered with such 
violence that the water will be mixed with it, and cause 
foaming. 



Maxims and Instructions, ^j 

j^— — — - — ■ - ■■■■' ■ ■ ■ — ..■■■. - - . ... .■■■■■ ■ ,■> 

FOAMING IN BOILERS. 

For yiolent ebullition a plate liung oyer the hole where the 
steam enters the dome from the boiler, is a good thing, and 
prevents a rush of water by breaking it, when the throttle is 
opened suddenly. 

In cases of very violent foaming it is imperative to check 
the draft and cover the fires. 

The steam pipe may be carried through the flange six inches 
into the dome — which will prevent the water from entering the 
pipes by following the sides of the dome as it does. 

A similar case of priming of the boilers of the TJ. S. Steamer 
Galena was stopped by removing some of the tubes under the 
smoke stack and substituting bolts. 

Clean water, plenty of surface, plenty of steam room, large 
steam pipes, boilers large enough to generate steam without 
forcing the fires, are all that is required to prevent foaming. 

A high pressure insures tranquillity at the surface, and the 
steam itself being more dense it comes away in a more compact 
form, and the ebullition at the surface is no greater than at a 
lower pressure. When a boiler foams it is best usually to close 
the throttle to check the flow, and that keeps up the pressure 
and lessens the sudden delivery. 

Too many flues in a boiler obstruct the passage of the steam 
from the lower part of the boiler on its way to the surface — • 
this is a fault in construction. 

An engineer who had been troubled with priming, finally 
removed 36 of the tubes in the centre of the boiler, so as to 
centralize the heating effect of the fire, thereby increasing the 
rapidity of ebullition at the centre, while reducing it at the 
circumference. The effect of the change was very marked. 
The priming disappeared at once. The water line became 
nearly constant, the extreme variation being reduced to two 
inches. 



^4 Maxims and Instructions. 

A CHAPTER OP DONTS. 

Which is another way of repeating what has already been said. 

1. DonH empty the boiler when the brick work is hot. 

2. JDoTiH pump cold water into a hot boiler. 

3. JDofiH allow filth of any kind to accumulate around the 

boiler or boiler room. 

4c J}on^t leave your shovel or any other tool out of its 
appointed place when not in use. 

5. DonH fail to keep all the bright work about the boiler 

neat and '^ shiny. "'^ 

6. DonH forget that negligence causes great loss and 

danger. 

7. UonH fail to be alert and ready-minded and ready- 

headed about the boiler and furnace, 

8. DonH read newspapers when on duty, 

9. DoiiH fire up too quickly. 

10. Dofi^t let any water or dampness come on the outside of 

your boiler. 

11. Don't let any dampness get into the boiler and pipe 

coverings. 

12. Don't fail to see that you have plenty of water in the 

boiler in the morning. 

13. Don't fail to keep the water at the same height in the 

boiler all day. 

14. Don't let any one talk to you when firing. 

15. Don't allow water to remain on the floor about the 

boiler. 

16. Don't fail to blow off steam once or twice per day 

according as the water is more or less pure. 

17. Don't fail to close the blow-off cock, when blowing off, 

when the water in the boiler has sunk to one and a 
half inches. 

18. Don't fail, while cleaning the boiler, to examine and 

clean all cocks, yalves and pipes and look to all joiuti 
and packing 



Maxims and Instructions^ 45 



A CHAPTER OF DONTa 

19. Don^t commence cleaning the boiler until it has had 

time to cool. 

20. Don^t forget daily to see that the safety-valve moves 

freely and is tight. 

21. Don^t fail to clean the boiler inside frequently and 

carefully. 

22. Don^t fail to notice that the steam gauge is in order. 

23. Don*t fail to keep an eye out for leaks and have them 

repaired immediately, no matter how small. 

24. DofiH fail to empty the boiler every week or two and 

re-fill it with fresh water. 

25. Don^t let any air into the furnace, except what goes 

through the grate-bars, or the smoke burners, so called, 
by which the air is highly heated. 

26. Don^t increase the load on the safety-valve beyond the 

pressure allowed by the inspector. 

27. Don^t fail to open the doors of the furnace and start the 

pump when the pressure is increased beyond the 
amount allowed, dut 

28. Don^t fail to draw the fires when there is danger from 

the water having fallen too low. 

29. Don^t fail to check the fire — if too hot to draw, do it 

with fresh coal, damp ashes, clinkers or soil ; and 

30. Dofi^t fail to open the doors of the furnace and close 

the ash-pit doors at the time the fire is checked — a7id 

31. Don't decrease the steam pressure by feeding in water 

or suddenly blowing off steam, and 

32. Don't touch the safety-valve, even if it be opened 

or closed, and 

33. Don't change the feed apparatus if it is working, or the 

throttle- valve be open ; let them both remain as they 
are for a short time, and 

34. Don't fail to change them very cautiously and slowly 

when you close them, and 

36. Don't fail to be very cool and brave while resolate in 

observ'ng these last seven '* Donets." 



^6 Maxims and Instructions. 



A CHAPTER OF DONTS. 

36. Don^t fail to keep yourself neat and tidy. 

37. Don^t fail to be polite as well as neat and brave. 

38. DonH fail to keep the tubes clear and free from sooi 

and ashes. 

39. Don^t let too many asbes gather in the ash-pit. 

40. JDonH disturb the fire when it is burning good nor stir 

it up too often. 

41. Don't be afraid to get instruction from books and 

engineering papers. 

42. Don't fail to make an honest self-exami nation as to 

points upon which you may be ignorant, and really 
need to know in order to properly attend to your duties. 

43. Don't allow too much smoke to issue from the top of 

the chimney if the cause lies within your power to pre- 
vent it. 

44. Don't think that after working at firing and its kindred 

duties for a year or two that th^ whole subject of 
engineering has been learned. 

45. Don't forget that one of the best helps in getting for 

ward is the possession of a vigorous and well-balanced 
mind and body — this covers temperance and kindred vir- 
tues and a willingness to acquire and impart knowledge. 

46. Don't forget to have your steam-gauge tested at least 

once in three months. 

47. Don't use a wire or metallic rod as a handle to a swab 

in cleaning the glass tube of a water-gauge for the glass 
may suddenly fly to pieces when in use within a short 
time afterwards. 

48. Don't forget that steam pumps require as much atten- 

tion as a steam engine. 

49. Don't run a steam pump piston, unless in an emergency, 

at a speed exceeding 80 to 100 feet per minute. 

60. Don't do anything without a good reason for it about 
the engine or boiler, but when you are obliged to do 
anything, do it thoroughly and as quickly as possible. 



Maxims ana Jnstrtuttons, ^7 

A CHAPTER OF DONT*S. 

6L J)o7i^t forget to sprinkle a thin layer of coal on the 
grates before lighting the shavings and wood in the 
morning. This practice preserves the grate bars. 

62. Don't don't take the cap off a bearing and remove the 

upper brass simply to see if things are working well ; if 
there is any trouble it will soon give you notice, and, 
besides, you never can replace the brass in exactly its 
former position, so that you may find that the bearing 
will heat soon afterwards, owing to your own uncalled- 
for interference. 

63. Don't put sulphur on a hot bearing, unless you intend 

to ruin the brasses. 

64. Don't use washed waste that has a harsh feel, as the 

chemicals used in cleansing it have not been thoroughly 
removed. 

66. Don't^ in case of an extensive fire, involving the whole 
business, rush off without drawing the fires, and raising 
and propping open the safety valve of the boiler. 

66. Don't fail to preserve your health, for ^' a sound mind 
in a sound body " is beyond a money valuation. 

57. Don't fail to remember that engineers and firemen are 

in control of the great underlying force of modern civ- 
ilization; hence, to do nothing to lower the dignity of 
the profession. 

58. Don't forget that in the care and management of the 

steam boiler the first thing required is an unceas- 
ing watchfulness —watch-care. 

59. Don't forget that an intemperate, reckless or indiffer- 

ent man has no business in the place of trust of a steam 
boiler attendant. 

60. Don't allow even a day to pass without adding one or 

more facts to vour knowledge of engineering in some 
of its branches. 



^8 Maxims and Instructions, 



STEAM GENERATORS. 



In the examinations held by duly appointed officers to 
determine the fitness of candidates for receiving an engineer's 
license the principal stress is laid upon the a^^plicant's knowl- 
edge of the parts and true proportions of the various designs 
of steam boilers, and his experience in managing them. 

In fact, if there were no boilers there would be no examin- 
a-tions, as the laws are framed, certificates issued and steam 
boiler inspection companies formed to assure the public safety 
in life, limb and property, from the dangers arising from so- 
called mysterious boiler explosions. 

Hence an almost undue proportion of engineers^ examina- 
tions are devoted to the steam boiler, its management and con- 
struction. But the subject is worthy of the best and most 
thoughtful attention. Every year adds to the number of steam 
boilers in use. With the expanding area and growth of pop- 
ulation, the number of steam plants are multiplied and in 
turn each new steam boiler demands a careful attendant. 

There is this difference between the boiler and the engine. 
When the latter is delivered from the shop and set up, it does 
its work with an almost unvarying uniformity, while the boiler 
is a constant care. It is admitted that the engine has reached 
a much greater state of perfection and does its duty with very 
much more reliability than the boiler. 

Even when vigilant precautions are observed, from the 
moment a steam boiler is constructed until it is finally de- 
stroyed there are numerous insidious agents perpetually at 
work which tend to weaken it. There is nothing from which 
the iron can draw sustenance to replace its losses. The at- 
mosphere without and the air within the boiler, the water as it 



Maxims and Instructions. ^g 



STEAM GENERATORS. 

enters through the feed-pipe and containing mineral and 
organic substances, steam into which the water is converted, 
the sediment which is precipitated by boiling the water, the 
fire and the sulphurous and other acids of the fuel, are all 
natural enemies of the iron ; they sap its strength, not only 
while the boiler is at work and undergoing constant strain, but 
in the morning before fire is started, and at noon, night, Sun- 
days, and other holidays it is preyed upon by these and other 
corroding agents. 

These are the reasons which impress the true engineer with 
a constant solicitude regarding the daily and even momentary 
action of the steam generator. 

Desceiption". 

The Steam Boiler in its simplest form war simply a closed 
•ressel partly filled with water and which was heated by a fire 
box, but as steam plants are divided into two principal parts, 
the engine and the boiler, so the latter is divided again into 
the furnace and boiler, each of which is essential to the other. 
The furnace contains the fuel to be burnt, the boiler contains 
the water to be evaporated. 

There must be a steam space to hold the steam when gener- 
ated ; heating su vCo to transmit the heat from the burning 
fuel to the water j a 3himney or other apparatus to cause a 
draught to the furnace and to carry away the products of com- 
bustion , ana various fittings for supplying the boiler with 
water, for carrying away the steam when formed to the engine 
in which it is used ; for allowing steam to escape into the open 
air when it forms faster than it can be used ; for ascertaining 
the quantity of water in the boiler, for ascertaining the pressure 
of the steam, etc., all of which, together with the engine and 
its appliances is called A steam plakt. 

The forms in which steam generators are built are numerous, 
but may be divided into three classes, viz : stationary, loco- 
motive and marine boilers, which terms designate the uses for 
which they are intended ; in this work we have to deal mainly 
with the first-named, although a description with illustration 
is given of each type or form. 



50 



Maxims and Instructions. 



AN UPRIGHT STEAM BOILER. 

To illustrate the operations of a steam generator, we give the 
details of an appliance, which may be compared to the letter A 
of the alphabet, or the figure 1 of tlie numerals, so simple 
is ii;. 

Fig. 11, is an elevation of boiler, fig. 12 a vertical section 
through its axis, and fig. 13 a horizontal section through the 
furnace bars. 




Kg. 11. Fig. 12. 

The type of steam generator here exhibited is what is known 
as a vertical tubular boiler. The outside casing or shell is 
cylindrical in shape, and is composed of iron or steel plates 
riveted togetlier. The top, which is likewise composed of the 
same plates is slightly dome-shaped, except at the center, which 
is away in order to receive the chimney a, which is round in 
shape and formed of thin wrought iron plates. The interior 
is shown in vertical section in fig. 15. It consists of a f arnace 
chamber, h, which contains the fire. The furnace is formed 
like the shell of the boiler of wrought iron or steel plates by 
flanging and riveting. The bottom is occupied by the grating, 
on which rests the incandescent fuel. The grating consists of 



Maxims and InstructioTi^ gi 

UPRIGHT STEAM BOILERS. 

a number of cast-iron bars, d (fig. 12), and shown in plan in fig, 
13, placed so as to have interstices between them like the grate 
of an ordinary fireplace. The bottom of the furnace is firmly 
secured to the outside shell of the boiler in the manner shown 
in fig. 12. The top covering plate cc, is perforated with a num- 
ber of circular holes of from one and a half to three inches 
diameter, according to the size of the boiler. Into each of 
these holes is fixed a vertical tube made of brass, wrought iron, 
or steel, shown at fff (fig. 12). These tubes pass through 
similar holes, at their top ends in the plafce g, which latter is 
firmly riveted to the outside shell of the boiler. The tubes are 
also firmly attached to the two plates, cCj g. They serve to 
convey the flame, smoke, and hot air from the 
fire to the smoke box, h, and the chimney, a, and 
afc the same time their sides provide ample heating 
surface to allow the heat contained in the products 
of combustion to escape into the water. The fresh 
fuel is thrown on the grating when required 
through the fire door, A (fig. 11). The ashes, 
cinders, etc., fall between the fire bars into the ash pit, B (fig. 
12). The water is contained in the space between the shell of 
the boiler, the furnace chamber, and the tubes. It is kept at 
or about the level, wio (fig. 12), the space above this part being 
reserved for the steam as it rises. The heat, of course, escapes 
into the water, through the sides and top plate of the furnace. 
and through the sides of the tubes. The steam which, as it 
rises from the boiling water, ascends into the space above ww, 
is thence led away by the steam pipe to the engine. Unless 
consumed quickly enough by the engine, the steam would ac- 
cumulate too much within the boiler, and its pressure would 
rise to a dangerous point. To provide against this contingency 
the steam is enabled to escape when it rises above a certain 
pressure through the safety-valve, which is shown in sketch on 
the top of the boiler in fig. 11. The details of the coustruction 
of safety-valves will be found fully described in another section 
of this work, which is devoted exclusively to the consideration 
of boiler fittings. In the same chapters will be found full de- 
scriptions of the various fittings and accessories of boilers, such 
as the water and pressure gauges, the apparatus for feeding the 
boiler with water, for producing the requisite draught of air to 
maintain the combustion, and also the particulars of the con- 
struction of the boilers themselves and their furnaces. 




y 



Maxims and instructio/Ci>. 



THE GEOWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

After the first crude forms, such as that used in connection 
with the Barancaand INewcoman engine, and numerous others. 
The steam boiler which came into very general use was thb 
'plain cylinder hoiler. An illustration is given of this in 
figures 14 and 15. 

It consists of a cylinder A, formed of iron plate with hemis- 
pherical ends B.B. set horizontally in brick work C. The 
lower part of this cylinder contains the water, the upper part 
the steam. The furnace D is outside the cylinder, being 
beneath one end ; it consists simply of grate bars e e set in the 
brick work at a convenient distance below the bottom of the 
boiler. 

The sides and front of the furnace are walls of brick work, 
which, being continued upwards support the end of the 
cylinder. The fuel is thrown on the bars through the door 
which is set in the front brick work. The air enters between 




Fig. 14, 

the grate bars from below. The 
portion below the bars is called 
the ash pit. The flame and hot 
gasses, when formed, first strike 
on the bottom of the boiler, and 
are then carried forward by the 
draft, to the so-called bridge wall 
0, which is a projecting piece of 
brick work which contracts the 
area of the flue n and forces all 




l^lg. 15. 



Alaxims and Instructions, ^ 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOH^ER. 

the products of combustion to keep close to the bottom of the 
boiler. 

Thence the gasses pass along the flue n, and return part one 
side of the cylinder in the flue m (fig. 15) and back again by 
the other side flue m to the far end of the boiler, whence they 
escape up the chimney. This latter is provided with a door 
or damper 'p, which can be closed or opened at will, so as 
to regulate the draught. 

This boiler has been in use for nearly one hundred years, but 
has two great defects. The first is that the area of heating 
surface, that is the parts of the boiler in contact with the 
flames, is too small in proportion to the bulk of the boiler ; the 
second is, that if the water contains solid matter in solution, 
as nearly all the water does to a greater or less extent, this 
matter becomes deposited on the bottom of the boiler just 
where the greatest evaporation takes place. The deposit, 
being a non-conductor, prevents the heat of the fuel from 
reaching the water in sufficient quantities, thus rendering the 
heating surface inefficient ; and further, by preventing the 
heat from escaping to the water, it causes the plates to become 
unduly heated, and quickly burnt out. 

There is another defect belonging to this system of boiler to 
which many engineers attach great importance, viz. : that the 
temperature in each of the three flues n, m, m' is very differ- 
ent, and consequently that the metal of which the shell of the 
boiler is composed expands very unequally in each of the flues, 
and cracks are very likely to take place when the effects of the 
changes of temperature are most felt. It will be noted that 
the flames and gasses in this earliest type of steam boiler make 
three turns baf ore reaching the chimney, and as these boilers 
were made frequently as much as 40 feet long it gave the 
extreme length of 120 feet to the heat products. 



5^ 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOH^ER. 



The Coris^ish Boiler is the next form in time and ex 
cellence. This is illustrated in figures 16 and 17. 

It consists also of a cylindrical shell A, with flat ends as ex 
hibited in cuts. The furnace, however, instead of being sit- 
uated underneath the front end of the shell, is enclosed in it in 
a second cylinder B, having usually a diameter a little greatei 
than half that of the boiler shell. The arranp^ement of the 
grate and bridge is evident from the diagram. After passing 
the bridge wall the heat products travel along through the in- 
ternal cylinder B, till they reach the back end of the boiler ; 
then return to the front again, by the two side flues m., m,'and 
thence back again to the chimney by the bottom of flue n. 

In this form of boiler the heating surface exceeds that of the 
last described by an amount equal to the area of the internal 
flues, while the internal capacity is diminished by its cubic 
contents ; hence for boilers of equal external dimensions, the 
ratio of heating surface to mass of water to be heated,, is greatly 
increased. Boilers of this sort can, however, never be made of 



l;^ 



^^^^----^^ 




B 





rv 



!!»■ 



n 



w- 



-^\^mv^<<<v\v\v\^m\\m\m^^^^^^ 



Eig. 16'. 

as small diameters as the plain 
cylindrical sort, on account of the 
necessity of finding room inside, 
below the water level, for the fur- 
nace and flue. 

The disadvantage, too, of the 
deposits mentioned in the plain 
cylinder is, to a great extent got 
over in the Cornish boiler, for the 




Maxims and Instructions, 55 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

bottom, where the deposit chiefly takes place, is the coolesr 
instead of being the hottest part of the heating surface. 

But the disadvantage of unequal expansion also exists in this 
type of boiler, as the internal flue in the Cornish system is the 
hottest portion of the boiler, and consequently undergoes a 
greater lengthways expansion than the flues. The result is to 
bulge out the ends, and when the boiler is out of use, the flue 
returns to its regular size, and thus has a tendency to work 
loose from the ends to which it is riveted and if the ends are 
too rigid to move, a very serious strain comes on the points of 
the flue. 

Even while in use the flue of a Cornish boiler is liable to un- 
dergo great changes in temperature, according to the state of 
the fire ; when this latter is very low, or when fresh fuel has 
been thrown on, the temperature is a minimum and reaches a 
maximum again when the fresh fuel commences to burn 
fierc ly. This constant expansion and contraction is found in 
practice to also so weaken the tube that it frequently collapses 
or is pressed together, resulting in great disaster. 

This led to the production and adoption of the — 

Lancashire Boiler, contrived to remedy this inconvenience 
and also to attain a more perfect combustion, the arrange- 
ment of the furnaces of which is shown in fig. 1 9 and fig. 20. 

It will be observed that there are two internal furnaces in 
stead of one, as in the Cornish type. These furnaces are some- 
times each continued as a separate flue to the other end of the 
boiler as shown in the cuts ; but as a rule they emerge into one 
internal flue. They are supposed to be fired alternately, and 
the smoke and unburned gases issuing from the fresh fuel are 
ignited in the flue by the hot air proceeding frcm the other 
furnace, the fuel in which is in a state of incandescence. Thus 
all violent changes in the temperature are avoided, and the 
waste of fuel due to unburned gases is avoided, if the firing is 
properly conducted. 

The disadvantage of the Lancashire boiler is the difficulty of 
finding adequate room for thf^ two furnaces without unduly m- 



56 



Maxims and Instructions^ 




op 



M 

o 






Maxims and Instructions, 



57 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

creasing the diameter of the shell. Low furnaces are extremely 
unfavorable to complete combustion, the comparatively cold 
crown plates, when they are in contact with the water of the 
boiler, extinguishing the flames from the fuel, when they are 
just formed, while the narrow space between the fuel and the 
crown does not admit the proper quantity of air being supplied 
above the fuel to complete the combustion of the gases, as 
they arise. 



On the other hand, though this boiler favors the formation 
of the smoke, it supplies the means of completing the com- 
bustion afterwards, as before ex- 
plained, by means of the hot air 
from the second furnace. 

Another disadvantage is the 
danger of collapsing the internal 
flue already spoken of ; this is 
remedied by the introduction of 
what are called the galloway tubes, 
illustrated in the cut shown on 
/this page, which is a cross section 
of the water tubes shown in Figs. 
18 and 20. 




These tubes not only contribute to strengthen the flues but 
they add to the heating surface and greatly promote the circu- 
lation so important in the water space. 



Note. 



These descriptions and illustrations of the Lancashire boiler 
are of general value, owing to the fact that v^ery many exhaust- 
ive tests and experiments upon steam economy have been 
made and permanently recorded in connection with this form 
of steam generatoi. ^ 



5» 



Maxims and Instructtonii 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOH^ER. 

In the Galloway form of boiler the flue is sustained and 
stiffened by the introduction of numerous conical tubes, 
flanged at the two ends and riveted across the flue. These 
tubes, a sketch of which are given in fig. 18 {a)y are in free 
communication with the water of the boiler, and besides acting 
as stiffeners, they also serve to increase the heating surface and 
to promote circulation. 




Fig. 19. Fig. 20. 

The illustration (figs. 18, 19 and 20) give all the principa. 
details of a Lancashire boiler fitted with Galloway tubes. Fig. 
18 represents a longitudinal section and figs, 10 and 20 
shows on a large scale an end view of the front of the boilei 
with its fittings and also a transverse section. The arrange 
ment of the furnaces, flues, and the Galloway tubes is suf 
ficiently obvious from the drawings. The usual length of these 
boilers is 27 feet, though they are occasionally made as short as 
21 feet. 

The minimum diameter of the furnaces is 33 inches, and in 
order to contain these comfortably the diameter of the boilei 
should not be less than 7 feet. The ends of the boiler are flat, 
and are prevented from bulging outwards by being held ill 
place by the furnaces and flues which stay the two ends to- 
gether and also by the so-called gusset stays e, e. In addition 
to the latter the flat ends of the boiler have longitudinal rods 
to tie them together ; one of these is shown Sit A, A, fig. 18» 



Maxims and Instructions §g 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOn^ER. 

The steam is collected in the pipe 8, which is perforated all 
along the top so as to admit the steam and exclude the water 
spray which may rise to the surface during ebullition. The 
steam thence passes to the stop yalye T outside the boiler and 
thence to the steam pipes to the engines. 

There are two safety valves on top of the boiler on B (fig. 
18 ), being of the dead weight type described hereafter, and the 
other, C, being a so-called low water safety valve. It is attached 
by means of a lever and rod to the float F, which ordinarily 
rests on the surface of the water. When through any neglect, 
the water sinks below its proper level the float sinks also, caus» 
ing the valve to open, thus allowing steam to escape and giving 
an alarm. M is the manhole with its covering plate, which 
admits of access to the interior of the boiler and H is the mud 
hole by which the sediment which accumulates all along the 
bottom is raked out. Below the front end and underneath, the 
pipe and stay valve are shown, by which the boiler can be 
emptied or blown off. 

On the front of the boiler (fig 19) are shown, the pressure 
gauges, the water gauges and the furnace door ; ^ is the feed 
pipe ; Ef B, a pipe and cock for blowing off steam. • In the 
front of the setting are shown two iron doors by which access 
may be gained to the two lower external flues for cleaning pur- 
poses. 

In the Lancashire boiler it is considered advisable to take 
the products of combustion, after they leave the internal flues, 
along the bottom of the boiler, and then back to the chimney 
by the side. When this plan is adopted the bottom is kept 
hotter than would otherwise be the case, and circulation is 
promoted, which prevents the coldest water from accumulating 
at the bottom. 

The Galloway (or Lancashire) boiler is considered the most 
economical boiler used in England, and is being introduced 
into the United States with success. The long traverse of heat 
provided (three turns of about 27 feet each) contributes greatly 
to its eflBciency. 



6o Maxims and Instructions, 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

It may be useful to add the following data relating to this 
approved steam generator, being the principal dimensions and 
other data of the boiler shown in fig. 18: 

Steam pressure, 75 lbs. per sq. inch. 

Length, 27 feet. Heating surface : 

Diameter, 7 feet. In furnace and flues 450 sq. feet. 

"Weight, total, 15| tons. In Galloway pipes, 30 *< 

Shell plates, yV inch. In external flues, 370 ** 

Furnace diameter, 33 inches* 

Furnace Plates, f inch, 850 sq. feet. 

End plates, ^ inch. 
Grate area, 33 sq. feet. 

We have thus detailed step by step the improvement of the 
steam boiler to a point where it is necessary to describe at 
length the locomotive, the marine, the horizontal tubular 
and the water tube boilers, which four forms comprehend 
ninety-nine out of one hundred steam generators in use in the 
civilized world at the present time. 



MARINB B0ILEB8. 

The boHera nsed on board steamships are of two principal 

types. The older sort nsed for steam of comparatively low 
temperature, viz.: up to 35 lbs. per square inch, is usually 
made of flat plates stayed together, after the manner of the 
exterior and interior fire boxes of a locomotive boiler. 

Medium high pressure marine boilers, constructed for eteam 
of 60 to 150 lbs. per square inch, are circular or oval in cross 
section, and are fitted with round interior furnaces and flues like 
land boilers. There are many variations of marine boilers, 
adapted to suit special circumstances. Fig. 23 shows a front 
elevation and partial sections of a pair of such boilers and Fig. 
83 shows one of them in longitudinal vertical section. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE MARINE STEAM BOILER. 




^ig%%. 



6x 




JFig.23. 



62 Maxims and Instructions. 

THE MARINIS STEAM BOILER. 

It will be seen from these drawings that there are three m 
ternal cylindrical furnaces at each end of these boilers, making 
in all six furnaces per boiler. The firing takes place at both 
ends. The flame and hot gases from each furnace, after pass- 
ing over the bridge wall enter a flat-sided rectangular combus 
tion chamber and then travel through tubes to the front up 
take (?'. e, the smoke bonnet or breaching), and so on to the 
chimney. 

The sides of the combustion chambers are stayed to each 
other and to the shell plate of the boiler ; the tops are 
strengthened in the same manner as the crowns of locomotive 
boilers, and the flat plates of the boiler shell are stayed to 
gether by means of long bolts, which can be lengthened up by 
means of nuts at their ends. Access is gained to the uptakes 
for purposes of cleaning, repairs of tubes, etc., by means of 
their doors on their fronts just above the furnace doors. The 
steam is collected in the large cylindrical receivers shown above 
each boiler. The material of construction is mild steel. 

The following are the principal dimensions and other par- 
ticulars of one of these boilers : 

Length from front to back 20 feet. 
Diameter of shell, 15 f^et G inches. 
Length of furnace, 6 feet 10 inches. 
Diameter of furnace, 3 feet 10 inches. 
Length of tubes, 6 feet 9 inches. 
Diameter of tubes, 3 J inches. 
No. of tubes, 516. 
Thickness of shell plates, if. 
Thickness of tube plates, f. 
Grate area, 126^ square feet. 
Heating surface, 4015 square feet. 
Steam pressure, 80 lbs. per sq. inch. 

Fig. 24 is a sketch of a modern marine boiler, which is only 
fired from one end, and is m consequence much shorter in 
proportion to its diameter than the type illustrated in figs. 23 
and 23. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



6s 



THE MARINE STEAM BOILER. 

Marine boilers over nine feet in diameter have generally two 
furnaces, those over 13 to 14 feet, three, while the very largest 
boilers used on first-class mail steamers, and which often 
exceed fifteen feet in diameter, have four furnaces. 



In the marine boiler the course 
taken by the products of combus- A ^ 
tion is as follows; the coal enters a ^ 
through the furnace doors on to 
the fire-bars, the heat and flames 
pass over the fire bridge into the 
flame or combustion chamber, 
thence through the tubes into 
the smoke-box, up the up-take 
and funnel into the air. 



The fittings to a marine boiler 
are — ^funnel and air casings, up- 
takes and air casings, smoke Fig. 24. 
boxes and doors, fire doors, bars, 

bridges, and bearers, main steam stop valve, donkey valve, 
safety valves and drain pipes, main and donkey feed check 
valves, blow-off and scum cocks, water gauge glasses on front 
and back of boiler, test water cock for trying density of water 
steam cock for whistle, and another for winches on deck. 




A fitting, called a blast pipe, is sometimes placed in the 
throat of the funnel. It consists of a wrought iron pipe, hav- 
ing a conical nozzle within the funnel pointing upwards, 
the other end being connected to a cock^ which latter is bolted 
on to the steam space or dome of the boiler. It is used for 
increasing the intensity of the draft, the upward current of 
steam forcing the air out of the funnel at a great velocity; and 
the air having to be replaced by a fresh supply through the 
ash-pits and bars of the furnaces, a greater speed of combus- 
tion is obtained than would otherwise be due to simple draft 
alone. 



^4 Maxims and Instruchons. 

THE MARINE STEAM BOILER, 

Boilers are fitted with dry and wet uptakes, which differ 
from each other as follows: — The dry uptake is wholly outside 
the boiler, and consists of an external casing bolted on to the 
firing end of the boiler, covering the tubes and forming the 
smoke-box, and is fitted with suitable tube doors. A wet up- 
take is carried back from the firing ends of the boiler into its 
steam space, and is wholly surrounded by water and steam. 
The dry uptake seldom requires serious repair; but the wet 
uptake, owing to its exposure to pressure, steam, and water, 
requires constant attention and repair, and is very liable to 
corrosion, being constantly wetted and dried in the neighbor- 
hood of the water-line. The narrow water space between both 
front uptakes is also very liable to become burnt, owing to 
accumulation of salt. The flue boilers of many tugs and ferry 
boats are fitted with wet uptakes. 

A superheater is a vessel usually placed in the uptake, or at 
the base of the funnel of a marine boiler, and so arranged that 
the waste heat from the furnaces shall pass around and through 
it prior to escaping up the chimney. It is used for drying or 
heating the steam from the main boiler before it enters the 
steam pipes to the engine. The simplest form of superheater 
consists of a wrought iron drum filled with tubes. The heat or 
flame passes through the tubes and around the shell of the 
drum, the steam being inside the drum. Superheaters are 
usually fitted w^ith a stop valve in connection with the boiler, 
by means of which it can be shut off; and also one to the steam 
pipe of the engine; arrangements are also usually made for 
mixing the steam or working independently of the superheater. 

A safety-valve is also fitted and a gauge glass ; the latter is 
to show whether the superheater is clear of water, as priming 
will sometimes fill it up. 

The special fittings of the marine boiler will be more partic- 
ularly described hereafter as well as the stays, riveting, 
strength, etc., etc. 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



f>5 



THB MARINE BOILER. 

The nse of the surface condenser in connection with the 
marine boiler was an immense step toward increasing its effi- 
ciency. In 1840 the average pressure used in marine hoilera 
was only 7 or 8 lbs. to the square inch, the steam being made 
with the two flue pattern of boiler, sea water being used for 
feed; as the steam pressure increased as now to 150 to 200 lbs. 
to the square inch, greater and greater difficulty was experi- 
enced from salt incrustation—in many cases the tubes did not 
last long and frequently gave much trouble, until the intro- 
duction of the surface condenser, whirh supplied fresh water 
to the boilers. 




%^ fiunp 






Fig. 25 



The Surface Conde:n^ser. 

The condenser is an oblong or circular box of cast iron fitted 
in one of two ways, either with the tubes horizontal or vertical; 
at each end are fixed the tube plates, generally made of brass, 
and the tubes pass through the plates as well as through a 
supporting plate in the middle of the condenser. Each end 
of the condenser is fitted with doors for the purpose of enabling 
the tube ends to be examined, drawn, or packed, as may be 
necessary. The tube ends are packed in various ways, and 
the tubes are made of brass, so as to resist the action of the 
water. The water is generally sucked through the tubes by 



66 Maxims and Instructions. 

THE CONDENSER. 

the circulating pump, and the steam is condensed by coming 
in contact with the external surface of the tubes. In some 
cases the water is applied to the external surface, and the 
steam exhausted through the tubes ; but this practice is now 
generally given up in modern surface condensers. The pack- 
ing round the tube ends keeps them quite tight, and in the 
event of a split tube, a wooden plug is put in each end until an 
opportunity offers for drawing it and replacing with a new one. 
The condenser may be made of any convenient shape. It 
sometimes forms part of the casting supporting the cylinders 
of vertical engines ; it is also frequently made cylindrical with 
flat ends^ as in fig. 25. The ends form the tube plates to which 
the tubes are secured. The tubes are, of course, open at the 
ends, and a space is left between the tube plate and the outer 
covers, shown at each end of the condenser, to allow of the 
circulation of water as shown by the arrows. 

OpEKATIOI^ of the Coiq"DENSER. 

The cold water, which is forced through by a circulating 
pump, enters at the bottom, and is compelled to pass forward 
through the lower set of tubes by a horizontal dividing plate ; 
it then returns through the upper rows of tubes and passes out 
at the overflow ; the tubes are thus maintained at a low tem- 
perature. 

The tubes are made to pass right through the condensing 
chamber, and so as to have no connection with its internal 
space The steam is passed into the condenser and there comes 
in contact with the cold external surface of the tube, and is 
condeDsed, and removed as before, by the air pump, as may 
be readily seen in the illustration (p. 65.) 

The advantages gained by the use of the surface condenser 
are : 1. The feed water is hotter and fresh ; being hotter, it 
saves the fuel that would be used to bring it up to this heat ; 
and being fresh it boils at a lower temperature. 2. Kot form- 
ing so much scale inside the boiler, the heat passes through to 
the water more readily ; and as the scum cock is not used so 
freely, all the heat that would have been blown off is saved. 
Its disadvantages are that being fresh water and forming no 
scale on the boiler, it causes the boiler to rust. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



67 



THE MARINE BOILER, 
It is often said that one engineer will get more out of a 
ship than another. In general it will be found that the 
most successful engineer is the man who manages his stokers 
best. It is very difficult on paper to define what is meant. It 
is a thing to be felt or seen, not described. * * * * The 
engineer who really knows his business will give his fires a fair 
chance to get away. He will work his engines up by degreefi 
and run a little slowly for the first few moments, 

WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 
A popular form of steam boiler in use in the United States 
and Europe is what is called the water tube boiler. This 
term is applied to a class of boiler in which the water is con- 
tained in a series of tubes, of comparatively small diameter, 
which communicate with each other and with a common 




Water Tube Bon.ER.~Fig. 26. 

steam-chamber. The flames and hot gases circulate between 
the tubes and are usually guided by partitions so as to act 
equally on all portions of the tubes. There are many varieties 
of this type oi boiler of which the cut illustrates one : in this 
each tuDe is secured at either end into a square cast-iron head, 
and each of these heads has two openings, one communicating 
with the tube below and the other with the tube above ; the 



68 Maxims and Instructions. 



WATER TUBE STEAM BOII^RS. 

communication is effected by means of hollow cast-iron caps 
shown at the end of the tubes ; the capb have openings in them 
corresponding with the openings in the tube heads to which 
they are bolted. 

In the best forms of the water tube boilers, it is suspended 
entirely independent of the brick work from wrought iron 
girders resting on iron columns. This avoids any straining of 
the boiler from unequal expausion between it and its eu closing 
walls and permits the brick work to be repaired or removed, if 
necessary, without in any way disturbing the boiler This 
design is shown in Fig. 26. 

The distinguishing difference, which marks the water tube 
boiler from others, consists in the fact that in the form-cr the small 
tubes are filled with water instead of the products of combus- 
tions ; hence the comparison, frequently made, between water- 
tube ^rAfire tube boilers— the difference has been expressed in 
another way, ^' Water-tube vs. shell boilers,^* but the principle 
of steam production in both systems remains the same ; the 
heat from the combustible is transferred to the water through 
the mediam of iron plates and in both, the furnaces, steam 
appliances, application of the draught, etc., is substantially the 
same. In another important point do the systems agree, i, e., 
in the average number of pounds of water evaporated per lb. 
of combustible ; it is in the thoroughness of construction and 
skillfulness of adaptation to surroundings that produce the 
best results. Water tube or sectional boilers, have been made 
since the days of James Watt, in 1766, in many different forms 
and under various names. Owing, however, to the imperfec- 
tion of manufacture the system, as compared to shell boilers, 
has been a failure until very recently ; various patterns of 
water-tube boilers are now in most favorable and satisfactory 
use. The advantages claimed for this form of steam generator 
are as follows : 

1. Safety from disastrous explosions, arising from the 
division of the contents into small portions, and especially 
from details of construction which make it tolerably certain 
that the rupture will be local instead of a general violent ex- 
plosion which liberates at once large masses of steam and water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 6g 



WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 

2. Tlie small diameter of the tubes of whicli they are com- 
posed render them much stronger than ordinary boilers. 

8. They can be cheaply built and easily repaired, as duplicate 
pieces can be kept on hand. The various parts of a boiler can 
be transported without great expense, trouble or delay ; the 
form and proportions of a boiler can be suited to any available 
space ; and, again, the power can be increased by simply ad- 
ding more rows of tubes and increasing the grate area. 

4. Their evaporatiye efficiency can be made equal to that of 
other boilers, and, in fact, for equal proportions of heating and 
grate surfaces, it is often a trifle higher. 

6. Thin heating surface in the furnace, avoiding the thick 
plates necessarily used in ordinary boilers which not only hinder 
the transmission of heat to the water, but admit of overheating, 

6. Joints removed from the fire. The use of lap welded 
water tubes with their joints removed from the fire also avoid 
the unequal expansion of riveted joints consequent upon their 
double thickness. 

7. Quick steaming, 

8. Accessibility for cleaning. 

9. Ease of handling and erecting. 

10. Economy and speediness of repairs. 

The known disadvantages of these boilers are 

1. They generally occupy more space and require more 
masonry than ordinary boilers. 

2. On account of the small quantity of water which they 
contain, sudden fluctuations of pressure are caused by any 
irregularities in supplying the feed-water or in handling the 
fires, and the rapid and at times violent generation of steam 
causes it to accumulate in the contracted water-chambers, and 
leads to priming, with a consequent loss of water, and to over- 
heated tubes. 



*]0 Maxims and instructions, 

WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 

3. The horizontal or inclined water tubes which mainly 
compose these boilers, do not afford a ready outlet for the 
steam generated in them. The steam bubbles cannot follow 
their natural tendency and rise directly, but are grenerally 
obliged by friction to traverse the tube slowly, and at times 
the accumulation of steam at the heated surfaces causes the 
tubes to be split or burned. 

4. The nse of water which forms deposits of solid matter still 
further increases the liability to overheating of the tubes. It 
ha,s been claimed by some inventors that the rapid circulation 
of the water through the tubes would prevent any deposit of 
scale or sediment in them, but experience has proved this to be 
a grave error. Others have said that the expansion of the tube 
would detach the scale as fast as it was deposited and prevent 
any dangerous accumulation, but this also has been proved an 
error. Again, the use of cast iron about these boilers has 
frequently been a constant source of trouble from cracks, etc. 

CARE OF WATER TUBE BOILERS. 

The soot and ashes collect on the exterior of the tubes in this 
form of boilers, instead of inside the tubes, as in the tubular, 
and they must be as carefully removed in one case as in the 
other : this can be done by the use of blowing pipe and hose 
through openings left in the brick work ; in using bituminous 
coal the soot should be brushed oft' when steam is down. 

All the inside and outside surfaces should be kept clean to 
avoid waste of fuel ; to aid in this service the best forms are 
provided with extra facilities for cleaning. For inspection, 
remove the hand holes at both ends of the tubes, and by hold- 
ing a lamp at one end and looking in at the other the condition 
of the surface can be freely seen. Push the scraper through 
the tube to remove sediment, or if the scale is hard, use the 
chipping scraper made for that purpose. 

Hand holes should be frequently removed and surfaces 
examined, particularly in case of a new boiler. In replacing 



Maxims and InstrMctions. JI 



CARE OF WATER TUiLE BOILERS. 

hand hole caps, clean the surfaces without scratching or 
bruising, smear with oil and screw up tight. 

The mud drum should be periodically examined and the 
sediment removed ; blow-o£E cocks aud check valves should be 
examined each time the boiler is cleaned ; when surface blow- 
cocks are used they should be often opened for a few minutes 
at a time ; be sure that all openings for air to boiler or flues 
except through the fire, are carefully stopped. 

If a boiler is not required for some time, empty and dry it 
thoroughly. If this is impracticable, fill it quite full of water 
and put in a quantity of washing soda ; and external parts 
exposed to dampness should receive a coating of linseed oil. 
Avoid all dampness in s;atmgs or coverings and see that no 
water comes in contact with the boiler from any cause. 

Although this form of boiler is not liable to destractive 
explosion, the same care should be exercised to avoid possible 
damage to boilers and expensive delays. 



SECTIONAL BOILERS. 

Probably one of the first sectional boilers brought into 
practical use is one made of hollow cast iron spheres, each 
8 inches in diameter, externally, and f of an inch thick, 
connected by curved necks 3J inches in diameter. These 
spheres are held together by wrought iron bolts and caps, and 
in one direction are cast in sets of 2 or 4, which are after- 
wards drawn together so as to give more or less heating surface 
to the boiler according to the number used. 

NOTE. 

Owing to their multiplication of parts all sectional, inclnding 
water tube boilers, should be made with unusual care in their 
details of construction, setting, fittings and proportions. It is 
to the attention paid to these ^^ points" that the sectional 
boilers are now coming into more general favor. 



*^2 Maxims and Instructions, 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 

The essential features of locomotive boilers are dictated by 
the duties which they have to perform under peculiar condi- 
tions. The size and the weight are limited by the fact that 
ibfi boiler has to be transported rapidly from place to place, and 
also that it has to fit in between the frames of the locomotive ; 
while at the same time, the pressure of the steam has to be 
very great in order that with comparatively small cylinder the 
engine may develop great power ; moreover, the quantity of 
water which has to be evaporated in a given time is very con- 
siderable. To fulfil these latter conditions a large quantity of 
coal must be burned on a fire grate of limited area ; hence in- 
t,ense combustion is necessary under a forced blast. To utilize 
advantageously the heat thus generated, a large heating surface 
must be provided and this can only be obtained by passing the 
products of combustion through a great number of tubes of 
small diameter. 

The forced draught in a locomotive boiler is obtained by 
causing the steam from the cylinders, after it has done its work^ 
to be discharged into the chimney by means of a pipe called 
the blast pipe ; the lower portion of this consists of two 
branches, one in communication with the exhaust port of each 
cylinder. As each puft' of steam from the blast pipe escapes 
up the chimney it forces the air out in front of it, causing a 
partial vacuum, which can only be supplied by the air rushing 
through the furnace and tubes. 

The greater the body of steam escaping at each puff, and the 
more rapid the succession of puffs, the more violent is the 
action of the blast pipe in producing a draught, and conse- 
quently this contrivance regulates the consumption of fuel and 
the evaporation of water to a certain extent automatically, 
because when the engine is working its hardest and using the 
most steam, the blast is at the same time most efficacious. 

The blast pipe is perhaps, the most distinctive feature of the 
locomotive boiler, and the one which has alone rendered it 
possible to obtain large quantities of steam from so small a 



Maxims and Instructions, 



73 




J4 Maxims and Instructions. 

THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

generator. The steam blast of a locomotive has been com- 
pared to the breathing apparatus of a man, and has rendered 
the mechanism described nearer a live thing than any other 
device man has ever produced. 

On account of the oscillations, or violent motions to which 
the boiler of locomotive engines are subject, weighted safety- 
valves are not possible to be used and springs are used instead 
to hold the valves in place. 

The locomotive form of steam boiler is sometimes used for 
stationary engines, but owing to extra cost and increased 
liability to corrode in the smaller passage they are not favorites. 



DESORIPTIOU" OP PAGE ILLFSTRATION. 

In fig. 27, F B represents the fire box or furnace ; F D, 
fire door ; D P, deflector plate ; FTP, fire box tube plate ; 
F B R S, fire box roof stays ; S T P, smoke box tube plate ; 
S B, smoke box ; S B D, smoke box door ; S D, steam dome ; 
S, outer shell ; R S V, Ramsbottom safety-valve ; F, funnel 
or chimney. 




Fig. 28. 



The crown plate of the fire-box being flat requires to be 
efficiently stayed, and for this purpose girder stays called fox 
roof stays are mostly used, as shown in the figure. The stays 
are now made of cast steel for locomotives. They rest at the 
two ends on the vertical plates of the fire-box, and sustain the 



Maxims and Instructions, 



75 



THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

pressure on the fire-box crown by a series of bolts passing 
througli the plate and girder stay, secured by nuts and washers. 
Fig. 28 is a plan and elevation of a wrought-iron roof stay. 

Another method adopted in locomotive types of marine 
boilers for staying the flat crown of the fire-box to the circular 
upper plate is shown in fig. 29— namely, by wrought-iron 
vertical bar stays secured by nuts and washers to the fire-box 
with a fork end and pin to angle-iron pieces riveted to the 
boiler shell. 




The letters in this figure refer to the same parts of the boiler 
as do those in fig. 27, ^. e., F B to the fire-box, etc., etc. 



It was formerly the custom to make the tubes much longer 
than shown in the fig., with the object of gaining heating 
surface ; but modern experience has shown that the last three 
or four feet next the smoke box were of little or no use, because, 
by the time the products of combustion reached this part of the 
heating surface, their temperature was so reduced that but 
little additional heat could be abstracted from them. The 
tubes, in addition to acting as flues and heating surface, fulfil 
also the function of stays to the flat end of the barrel of the 
boiler, and the portion of the fire box opposite to it. 

In addition to the staying power derived from the tubes, the 
smoke box, tube plate and the front shell plate are stayed 
together by several long rods. 



70 



Maxims and Instructions. 




o 

CO 

•i 



o 

m 

o 

N 

M 

o 

w 

w 



Maxima and Instructions, 



77 



STAISDAKD HORIZONTAL TUBULAR STEAM BOILER. 



lUUBIxK or 8IZES, PROPORTTOJSr&, ETC 





be ;^ 


of 
eads. 


mber 

of 

ibes. 


meter 

of 

ibes. 


mgth 

of 

abes. 


uare 
et of 
atiiig 
rface. 


minal i 
orse j 
)wei. '1 


.J3 02 

Q 


19 ft. 4 in. 


O oc 


o a 


^ ^ 


4 in. 


18ft.0in. 




j^ffid: 


73 in. 


3-8 in. 


1-3 in. 


80 


1,500 


100 


73 *' 


18" 4" 


3-8 " 


1-3 " 


86 


3^ " 


17 " " 


1,500 


100 


72 " 


17 ** 4 ** 


3-8 " 
3-8 ** 


1-3 " 
1-3 " 


108 
74 


3 " 

3^ " 


16 " " 


1,500 , 

1 


100 


66 '8 " 4 " 


17 " *' 


1,350 


90 


66 *' 


17 ** 4 " 


3-8 " 


1-3 " 


92 

78 


3 " 


16 " '* 


1,360 
1,200 


90 


60 " 


18" 3" 


3-8 " 


1-2 " 


3 " 


17 " " 


80 


60 " 


17" 3" 


3-8 " 


1-3 " 


76 


3 " 


16 " " 


1,125 


75 


60 '* 


16" 3" 


3-8 " 


1-2 " 


77 


3 " 


15 " " 


1,050 


70 


60 " 


16*' 3*- 


3-8 " 


1-3 " 


70 


3 " 


15 " " 


975 


65 


60 " 


16" 3" 


3-8 " 


1-2 " 


64 
60 


3 " 


15 " " 


900 
90o 


60 


54 *' 


17 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 " 


3 " 


16 " " 


50 


54 " 


17 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 " , 


56 


3 " 


16 " " 


825 


55 


54 »* 


16 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 «* ' 


52 


3 " 


15 *• " 


750 


50 


54 «* 


16 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 " 


46 


3 " 


15 " " 


675 


45 


54 " 


16 " 3 " 

17" 3" 


5-16 " 
5-16 " 


7-16 " 


40 


3 " 
3 " 


15 " " 

16 " " 


600 
750 


40 


48 ** 


7-16 « 


50 


60 


48 '* 


16" 2" 


5-16 " 


7-16 *• 


48 


3 ** 


15" 0" 


675 


45 


48 *« 


16" 3" 


5-16 " 


7-16 " 
3-8 " 


43 

36 


3 " 


15 " " 

15** 0" 


600 
525 


40 


43 ** 


16 " 3 " 


1-4 " 


3 " 


85 


43 *' 


15" 3" 


1-4 ** 


3-8 " 


33 


3 *• 


14** 0** 


450 


30 


43 *» 


14" 3*' 


1-4 « 


3-8 " 


38 


8 " 


13** 0** 


375 


25 


36 *• 


14 " 3 " 


1-4 •« 


3-8 " 


36 


2i " 


13** 0** 


875 


25 


36 •• 


14 " 3 " 


1-4 « 


3-8 ** 


28 


3i " 


13 " ** 


300 


20 


36 ** 13 ** 3 ** 


1-4 «« 


3-8 «« 


20 


3^ " 


13 *• " 


335 


15 


?3 ** 13 ** 3 ** 1-4 " 


8-8 •* 


14 


%l " 


11 *• «• 


150 


10 



Note. 



In estimating the horse power by means of the above table, 
15 square feet has been allowed for each horse power, and the 
number of feet in each boiler is given m round numbers. This 
table is one used in every-day practice by boiler makers. 



7S 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE FLUE BOILER. 




The Two Flue Boiler. — Fig. 31. 




The Six Ikch Flue Boiler.— Fig. 32. 



Maxims and Instructions. jg 



THE HORIZONTAL TUBULAR STEAM BOILER. 

The great majority of stationary boilers are cylindrical or 
round shaped, because— 

1. The cylindrical form is the strongest. 

2. It is the cheapest. 

3. It permits the use of thinner metal. 

4. It is the safest. 

5. It is inspected without difficulty. 

6. It is most symmetrical. 

7. It is manufactured easier. 

8. It resists internal strain better. 

9. It resists external strain also. 

10. It can be stayed or strengthened better. 

11. It encloses the greatest volume with least material. 

12. It is the result of many years' experience in boiler 
practice. 

13. It is the form adopted or preferred by all experienced 

engineers. 

It follows, too, that the horizoyital tubular boiler, substan- 
tially as shown in fig. 30, is the standard steam boiler ; engi- 
neers and steam power owners cling with great tenacity to this 
approved form, which is an outgrowth of one hundred years' 
experience in steam production. 

In the plain horizontal tubular boiler shown in cuts, the 
shell is filled with as many small tubes varying from two inches 
to four inches in diameter as is consistent with the circulation 
and steam space. In firing this type of boiler the combustion 
first takes place under the shell, and the products, such 
as heat, flame, and gas, pass through the small tubes to the 
chimney, although in the tripple draught pattern of the tubular 
boiler, the heat products pass, as will hereafter be explained, a 
second time through the boiler tubes, making three turns 
before the final loss of the extra heat takes place. 



So 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE HORIZONTAL TUBULAR STEAM BOILER. 

The illustrations on pages 78 and 80 exliibifc the gradual ad- 
vances to the horizontal tubular by the two-flued boiler (fig. 31) 
of the six flues (fig. 32.) and of the locomotive Portable Boiler 
(fig. 33). The vertical or upright tubular bmler is but another 
modification of the horizontal tubular. 




The Locomotive Portable Boiler. — Fig. 33. 

In parts of the vertical boiler there is very little circulation 
and the corrosion on the inner side is such as to wear the boiler 
rapidly. In the ash pit, ashes and any dampness that ma}^ be 
about the place also causes rapid corrosion. The upper part of 
the tubes and tube sheet are frequently injured ; for instance, 
if the tubes pass all the way through to the upper tube sheet, 
providing there is no cone top, when the fire is first made 
under the boiler, combustion at times does not take place until 
the gases pass nearly through the tubes. The water usually 
being carried below the tube sheet there is a space left above 
the water line, where there is neither steam nor water, and the 
heat is so great that the ends of the tubes are burned and crys- 
talized, and the tube sheet is often cracked and broken by this 
excessive heat before the steam is generated The first diffi- 
culty is experienced in *'tho legs" of the Portable Locomotive 
boiler — hence the general verdict of steam users in favor of the 
^ound shell, many-tubed boiler. 



Maxims and Instructions. 8i 



PAETS OF THE TUBULAR BOILER. 

The Shell. This is the round or cylindrical structure 
which is commonly described as the boiler, in which are 
inserted the braces and tubes, and which sustains the inter- 
nal strain of the pressure of the steam, the action of the 
water within, and the fire without. 

The Drum. This part is sometimes called the dome, and 
consists of an upper chamber riveted to the top of the boiler 
for the purpose of affording more steam space. 

The Tube Sheets. These are the round, flat flanged 
sheets forming the two ends of the boiler, into which the 
tubes are fastened. 

The Manhole Cover. This is a plate and frame com- 
monly opening inwards and large enough to admit a man 
into the interior of the boiler. These openings are some- 
times made on the top and sometimes at the end of the boiler. 
Manhole openings in steam boilers should invariably be lo- 
cated in the head of the boiler, except in rare cases that may 
arise, when circumstances require it to be placed in the 
shell. The manhole, so placed, will not materially reduce 
the strength of the boiler, and from this position it can more 
readily be seen that the boiler is kept in proper condition. 
The proper sizes for manholes are 9x5 and 10x16, according 
to circumstances. These are amply large for general use and 
no material advantage is gained by increasing them. 

The Hand Hole Plates. These are similar arrange- 
ments to the manhole cover, except as to size. They are 
made large enough to admit the hand into the boilers for the 
purpose of removing sediment and they are also used for the 
purpose of inspecting the interior of the boiler. Two are 
usually put in each boiler, one front and one in the rear. 

The Blow Off. This consists of pipes and a cock com- 
municating with the bottom of the boiler for the purpose of 
blowing o£ the boiler or of running off the water when the 
former needs cleaningo 



82 



Maxims and Instructions. 




Maxims and instructions 



<5J 



THE TRIPLE DRAUGHT TUBULAR BOILER. 

This boiler, which is extensively used by the manufacturers 
of New England, is, as will be seen by the illustration, of the 
horizontal tubular class, and is essentially different from the 
well known type only in the arrangement of the tubes. The 
method secures the passage of the products of combustion 
through the same shell twice ; forward through a part of the 
tubes, and backwards through the remaining ones. The man- 
ner of accomplishing this result can be best described by 
explaining how a common tubular boiler may be remodelled 
so as to carry out this principle. 

A cylindrical shell, as shown in Fig. 34 — of sujQSicient size to 
encircle about one-half of the tubes, is attached to tJie outside of 




.t*»*.^a't»iii-^, .-i 



^^ 



S ^1 , 



• iv 



1=3 



i — J L^ 



w- 




Sm^^^^!^i(\\\M\^N^^ ^ 



Fig. 35. 



the rear head below the water line, and extended L>ackward to 
the back end of the setting. The encircled tubes are length- 
ened and carried backward to the same point ; the extension is 
closed in and made to communicate with the boiler proper ; 
the inner tubes emerge to the flue leading to the chimney and 
the old connection from the smoke arch is cut off. With this 
arrangement, the outer tubes of the boiler — a cluster on each 
side of the supplementary shell carry the products of combus- 
tion forward to the front smoke arch, and the inner tubes carry 
them backward to the chimney. 



tf^ 



Maxims and Jnstructions. 



THE TRIPLE DRAUGHT TUBULAR BOn.ER. 

Fig. 35 exhibits the boiler in half section and shows the 
course of the heat products through ons of the outer tubes and 
returning through the boiler by 07ie of the inner cluster. 

Fig. 36 (page 84) shows the boiler sectionally, over the 
bridge wall ; the sJiade4 tube ends exhibit the cluster which 
return the heat products to the rear of the boiler, after being 
brought forward by the two outer clusters which are left un- 
shaded. 

This arrangement of the tubes gives several advantages : 

1. It enables an exceedingly high furnace temperature, 
without loss at the chimney. 

2. By dividing the heat into these currents a more equal ex- 
pansion and contraction is secured. This is an important point 
secured. 

3. In this system the tubes are almost equally operative. 

4. The extra body of water immediately over the furnace is 
both an element of safety and a reservoir of power. 

5. The outlet for the waste products of combustion is found 
in this style of boiler in a more convenient position at the rear 
end of the boiler. 

6. The boiler being self-contained, can be used in places 
where height of story is limited. 




Kg. 86. 



Maxims and Instructions. S^ 



SPECIFICATION FOR 125 HORSE POWER BOILER. 



For one Horizontal Tubular BoUer 72 inches diameter 18 
feet long for of 

Type. 

The boiler to be of the Horizontal Tubular type with all 

castings and mountings complete. 

Dimensions. 

Boiler 72 inches diameter and 18 feet long. Each boiler to 
contain 90 best lap welded tubes 3^ inches diameter by 18 feet 
long, set in vertical and horizontal rows with a space between 
them vertically and horizontally of no less than one inch and 
one-quarter (1|^) except central vertical space, which is to be 
three inches (3). No tube to be nearer than two and one-half 
inches (2|^) to shell or boiler. Holes through heads to be 
neatly chamfered off. All tubes to be set by Dudgeon Ex- 
pander and slightly flared at front end, turned over and beaded 
down at back end. 

Quality and Thickness of Steel Plates. 

Shell plates to be |-inch thick of homogeneous steel of 
uniform quality having a tensile strength of not less than 
65,000 lbs. Name of maker, brand and tensile strength to be 
plainly stamped on each plate. 

Heads to be of same quality as plates of shell in all particu- 
lars f-inch thick. Bottom of shell to be of one plate, and no 
plate to be less than 7 feet wide. Top of shell to be in 
three plates. All plates planed before rolling, and all joints 
fullered not caulked. 

Flanges. 

All flanges to be turned in a neat manner to an internal 
radius of not less than two inches (2) and to be clear of cracks, 
checks or flaws. 



86 Maxims and Instructions, 

SPECIFICATION FOR STEAM BOILEEL 

Riveting. 

Boilers to be riveted witli f-incli rivet througliout. All girth 
seams to be double riveted. All horizontal seams to be double 
riveted. Rivet holes to be punched or drilled so as to come 
fair in construction. No drift pins to be used in construction 
of the boilers. 

Braces. 

All braces to be of the crowfoot pattern, one and one -eighth 
(1 J) inch diameter and the shortest to be no less than four feet 
(4) long and of sufficient number for thorough bracing, and to 
bear uniform tension. 

Manholes^ Hand Holes and Thimbles. 

One manhole m top of each boiler with heavy cast iron frame 
riveted on middle of centre plate ; one manhole near the bot- 
tom of each front head ; head reinforced with a wrought iron 
ring two inches (2) square, riveted to heads with flush counter- 
sunk rivets two inches (2) pitch and to have all the necessary 
bolts, plates, guards and gaskets ; two six-inch thimbles riv- 
eted to top of each boiler, each to have a planed face ; one 
heavy 6-inch flange on bottom of each boiler, 12 inches from 
back end to centre of flange. There must be two braces, one 
on each side of manhole in front head ; also to have three 
braces opposite manhole on back head below tubes. 

liUgS. 

Four (4) lugs riveted on each side of boilers, of good and 
sufficient size, with six one-inch rivets in each lug. 

Casting^s. 

Each boiler to have a complete set of castings consisting of 
ornamental flush fronts containing tube, fire and ash-pit doors, 
and provide the best stationary grate bars as may be selected 
by buyer, with the necessary fixtures, all bearing bars, britch- 
ing plates, dead plates, binder bars, back cleaning out doors 
with frames. Anchor bolts and buck stays. The fire door to 
contain adjustable air opening and to be protected with fire 
shields. One heavy cast iron arch over each boiler. 



Maxims ana instrMcttons Sj 



SPECIFTCATION FOR STEAM BOILER. 

Testing, 

Boilers to be tested with a water pressure of 200 lbs. per 
square inch and certificate of such test having been made shall 
be furnisned with boiler. Test of boiler to be under direction 
of such steam boiler Insurance Company as may be selected by 
buyer. 

Quality and Workmanshipo 

All boilers to be made in the best workmanlike manner and 
all material of their respective kinds to be of the best, and in 
strict accordance with specification. 

Fittings and Mountings. 

The boiler to be furnished with the following : One four 
inch heavy mounted safety valve. One six inch flanged globe 
valve. Two two inch best globe valves. Two two inch check 
valves. One eight inch dial nickel plated steam gauge. One 
low water alarm gauge. One set of fire irons for two boilers 
consisting of hoe, poker, slice bar and shovel. 

Drawings. 

All drawings furnished for masons in setting the boilers. 

Duty of Boiler. 

The boiler to develop 120 horse power and to work under a 
constant pressure varying from 125 to 150 lbs. to the square 
inch. 

All rivets are to be 2^ and \\ inch pitch. The pitch line of 
the rivets to be not nearer 1^ inches to the edge of the sheet. 

To be 8 lug plates for each boiler not less than 2 feet long, 8 
inches wide, and one inch thick. 

Theie shall be six 1 inch anchor rods running front to rear 
of each boiler^ in the brick work. 

These boilers and all their fronts, fittings and connections 
will be subject to the inspection of •••..•..•. 



SS Maxims and Instrticttom^ 



MARKS ON BOILER PLATES. 

Something has been said under another heading of the 
natnre and requisite quality of the materials entering into 
the structure of the boiler. Two much emphasis cannot be 
laid upon the necessity for tlie use of the very best iron and 
steel that can be manufactured, and the most skillful and 
thorough workmanship that can be performed in constructing 
the boiler. 

It is becoming the practice, both for land and marine boilers, 
for boiler plate makers to furnish ^*test pieces ^^ from each 
sheet or plate that goes into the construction of a boiler, and a 
sheet showing the tensile strength of each sheet or plate that 
enters into its make up. 

Buc irrespective ol.this practice each plate entering into 
boil^ir construction will be found to have one of the following 
marks, which designate its quality and method of manufaetui'e. 
The name *' Charcoal Iron '' is used because in its manufac- 
ture wood charcoal is employed instead of mineral fuel. 

"Charcoal No. 1 Iron"(C. No. 1) is made entirely of 
charcoal iron. It has a tenacity of 40,000 pounds per square 
inch in the direction of the fibre. It is hard, but not very 
ductile, and should never be used for flanging. 

** Charcoal Hammered No. 1 Shell Iron"' (0. H. No. 1 S.), 
although not necessarily hammered, has been worked up before 
it is rolled into plates. It has a tenacity of 50,000 to 55,000 
pounds per square inch in the direction of the fibre. It is 
rather hard iron, and should not be flanged. It is used for the 
outside shell of boilers. 

'' Flange iron " (0. H. No. 1 P.), is a ductile material which 
can be flanged in every direction. It has a tenacity of 50,000 
to 55,000 pounds per square inch along the fibre. 

*'Fire Box Iron'^ (C. H. No. I F. B.), is a harder quality, 
designed especially to withstand the destructive effect of the 
impinging flame, and is used for boxes and flue sheets. 

The letters in the brackets exhibit the plate stamp. 

Cast iron and copper were used in an early day for steam 
boilers and the former is still extensively used for certain forms 
of low pressure steam heaters made for various purposes, such 
as green houses, etc. 



Maxims and Instructions, 8g 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOILERS. 

In selecting a boiler, the most efficient design will be found 
to be that in which tlie greatest amount of shell s^irf ace is ex- 
posed to direct heat. It is the direct heating surface that does 
the bulk of the work and every tendency to reduce it, either 
in the construction or setting of the boiler, should be avoided. 
The smaller the amount of surface enclosed by or in contact 
with the setting, the better results will be obtained. 

A boiler with a bad circulation is the bane of an engineer's 
existence. Proper circulation facilities constitute one of the 
chief factors in the construction of a successful and economi- 
cal boiler. In tubular boilers the best practice places the tubes 
in vertical rows, leaving out what would be the centre row. 
The circulation is up the sides of the boiler and down the cen- 
tre. Tubes set zig-zag to break spaces impede the circulation 
and are not considered productive of the best results. 

The surface from which evaporation takes place should be 
made greater as the steam pressure is reduced, that is to say, as 
the size of the bubbles of steam become greater. To produce 
100 lbs. of steam per hour at atmospheric pressure this surface 
should not be less than 732 square feet, which may be reduced 
to 146 square feet for steam at 75 lbs. pressure, and to 73 feet 
for steam at a pressure of 150 lbs. It is for this reason that 
triple-expansion engines can be worked with smaller boilers 
than are required with engines using steam of lower pressure. 
The amount of steam space to be permitted depends npon the 
volume of the cylinders and the number of revolutions made 
per minute. For ordinary engines it may be made a hundred 
times as great as the average volume of steam generated per 
second. 

A volume o^ heated water in a boiler performs the same 
office in furnishing a steady supply of steam as a fly-wheel 
does to an engine in insuring uniformity of speed ; hence the 
centre sjjace of a boiler should be ample, in order to take ad- 
vantage of this reserve force. 



go Maxims and InstrMctions. 

QUALITY OF STEEL PLATES. 

Steel for boilers is always of the kind known as low steel, or 
soft steel, and is, properly speaking, ingot iron, all of its char- 
acteristics being those of a tenacious, bending, equal grained 
iron, and quite different from true steels, such as knife blades, 
cutting tools, etc., are composed of. Steei is ra[)idly displacing 
iron in boiler construction, as it has greater strength for the 
same thickness, than iron; and, except in rare instances, where 
the nature of the water available for feed renders steel unde- 
sirable, iron should not be used for making boilers, careful tests 
having shown it to be vastly inferior to steel in many import- 
ant features. 

Good boiler steel up to one-half inch in thickness should be 
capable of being doubled over and hammered down on itself 
without showing any signs of fracture, and above tliat thick- 
ness it should be capable of being bent around a mandrel of a 
diameter equal to one and one-half times the thickness of the 
plate, to an angle of 180 degrees without sign of distress. Such 
bending pieces should not be less in length than sixteen times 
the thickness of the plate. 

On this test piece the metal should show the following physi- 
cal qualities : 

Tensile strength, 55,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch. 

Elongation, 20 per cent, for plates three-eighths inch thick 
or less. 

Elongation, 23 per cent, for plates from three-eighths to 
three-fourths inch thick. 

Elongation, 25 per cent, for plates oyer three-fourths inch 
thick. 

The cross sectional area of the test piece should be not less 
than one-half of one square inch, i. e., if the piece is one-fourth 
inch thick, its width should be two inches; if it be one-half 
inch thick, its width should be one inch. But for heavier 
material the width shall in no case be less than the thickness 
of the plate. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



9^ 



Nickel Steel Boiler Plates. 

It has been found that the addition of about three per cent. 
(3.16 to 3.32) of nickel to ordinary soft steel produces most 
favorable results ; thus it has been shown by Riley that a par- 
ticular variety of nickel steel presents to the engineer /Ae means 
of nearly duhling boiler pressures without increasing iveight or 
dimensions. 

In a recent experiment made with Bessemer steel rolled into 
three-fourths inch plates from which a number of test specimens 
were cut, the elastic limit was respectively 59,000 pounds and 
60,000 pounds. The ultimate tensile strength was 100,000 
pounds and 102,000 pounds, respectively. The elongation was 
15i per cent, in each specimen, and the reduction of area at 
fracture was 29.j per cent, and 26J per cent, respectively. 
These figures show that the elastic limit and ultimate tensile 
strength was raised by the nickel alloy to almost double the 
limits reached in the best grades of boiler plate steel, and the 
elongation was reduced to a scarcely appreciable extent. 

The experiment had fur its object, the reproduction, as 
nearly as possible, of the alloy used in the nickel steel armor 
plate made at Le Creusot, France, and the result was reported 
to the Secretary of the Navy at Washington. The new plate 
showed a percentage of 3.16 nickel, as against 3.32 for the im- 
ported plate. 

RIVETING. 

When the materials are of best quality, then there only re- 
mains to rivet and stay the boiler. Riveting is of two kinds, 
single and double. Fig. 37 shows the method of single rivet- 
ing, and Figs. 38 and 39 show the plan and cross-section of 
double riveted sheets. 




Fig. 37. 



Douhle Riveting con- 
sists in making the joints 
of boiler work with two 
rows of rivets instead of 
one — nearly always, hori- 
zontal seams are double 
riveted as well as domes 
where they join upon the 
boiler. Usually all girth 



g2 



Maxhns and Instructio7is, 



RIVETING, 
seams, — those running round the body of the boiler, are single 
riveted. The size of the rivets is in proportion to the diameter 
of the boiler, being f, f and -J as required in the specification. 
Eivet holes are made by punching or drilling, according 
to the material in which they are made. In soft iron and mild 
steel they mny safely be punched, but in metal at all brittle the 
holes should be drilled. 

Rivets are driven by 
hand, by steam riveting 
machines or by an im- 
proved pneumatic ma- 
chine which holds the 
sheet together and strikes 
a succession of light blows 
to form the head of the 
rivet while hot. Rivets 
Fig. 88. are made both of iron and 

steel, and there are certain well-known brands of such excellent 
quality that they are almost exclusively used in boiler work. 

A place where skill is shown in boiler construction is m 
laying out the rivet holes, with a templet, so that the sheets 
come exactly toa^ether with the holes so nearly o|)posite that the 
dreaded drift pin does not have to be used. 

In these figures the letters P and p refer to the ^^pitch of the 
rivets,'^ \. e., the part from centre to centre, and the dimensions 
given at the sides indicate the amount of lap given in inches 
and tenths of inches — the diameter of the rivet (!'') is also 
shown, and the turned over portion of the shank of the rivet is 
shown by dotted lines. 





Fig. 39. 



Maxims and Instrtictions, 



93 



EIVETING. 

Ko riveted boiler work can be considered fairly proportioned 
unless the strength of the plate between the rivets is fully equal 
to the strength of the rivets themselves. A margin (or net dis- 
tance from outside of holes to edge of plate) equal to the diam- 
eter of the drilled hole has been found sufficient. 

Eivets should be made of good charcoal iron or of a very 
soft mild steel, running between 50,000 and 60,000 pounds ten- 
sile strength and showing an elongation of not less t!ian ninety 
per cent, in eight inches, and having the same chemical com- 
position as specified for jolates. 

A lung rivet, holding thick plates together, is rarely tight 
except immediately under the head. The heads are set and the 
centre cooled before the hole is properly tilled. It it is a very 
long rivet there is a chance of the contraction fracturing the 
head of the rivet. In the Forth Bridge, which is made of very 
heavy plate girders, the rivets, first carefully fitted, were driven 
tight into the holes, the burr around the holes were removed, 
and the ends of the rivets heated to a sufficient degree to enable 
them to be closed over. 

A simple mathematical deduction shows that a circle seam 
has just one-half the strain to carry as a longitudinal seam, 
under the same pressure and with the same thickness of metal, 
hence the custom of single riveting the former and double riv- 
eting the latter, or longwise seams. 



DiFFEEENT Modes of RiYETiiirG. 



Chaik 


ZiG ZAG 


TREBIiB 


tJlTEQITAIi 


RnrETiKGk 


BlVKTINO, 


RrVETINa 


PrrcHKS. 


o o 


o 


o o 


o o o 




o 


O 




o o 


o 


O O 


o o 




o 


O 


) 


o o 


o 


O O 


o o o 




o 


O 




o o 


o 


o o 


o o 




o 


O 




o o 


o 


o o 


o o o 



94 



Maxims and Instructions. 



RIVETING. 
In fig. 41 may be seen an example of zig-zag riveting, 

r^^^//?///////y^^^PZ^ 



o o o o o 

O - o o o 



Fig.4L 

Caulking.— By this is meant the closing of the edges of the 
seams of boilers or plates. In preparing the seams for caulk- 
ing, the edges are first planed true inside and outside ; and 
after the plates have been riveted together, the edges are 
caulked or closed by a blunt chisel about i-inch thick at the 
edge, which should be struck with a 3 or 4-lb. hammer ; some- 
times one man doing the work alone and sometimes one hold- 
ing the chisel and another striking. 

Fullering a boiler plate is done by a round-nosed tool, while 
caulking is executed by a sharper instrument. 

The thinnest plate which should be used in a boiler is one- 
fourth of an inch, on account of the almost impossibility of 
caulking the seams of thinner plates. 

It is a rule well known to all practical boiler makers that 
the thinner the metal (compatible with due strength) the 
longer the life of the boiler under its varying stresses and the 
better the caulking will stand. 



Maxims and Instructions. pj: 



STEEL RIVETS. 

Hitherto there has been some prejudice against steel rivets, 
and while this may have some foundation when iron plates are 
used, it is certainly baseless when steel plates are concerned. 
The United States government has clearly demonstrated this. 
All the ships of the new navy have steel boilers, riveted with 
steel rivets, and an examination of the character of the mate- 
rial prescribed and the severity of the tests to which it is sub- 
jected show that these steel-riveted steel boilers are probablv 
the best boilers ever constructed. 

United States Government Requirements for Boiler Rivets. 

They are subjected to the most severe hammer tests, such as 
flattening out cold to a thickness of one-half the diameter, and 
flattening out hot to a thickness of one-third the diameter. In 
neither case must they show cracks or flaws. 

Kind of Material, — Steel for boiler rivets must be made by 
either the open-hearth or Clapp-Griffith process, and must not 
show more than .035 of one per centum of phosphorus nor 
more than .04 of one per ceatum of sulphur, and must be of 
the best quality in other respects. 

Each ton of rivets from the same heat or blow shall consti- 
tute a lot. Four specimens for tensile tests shall be cut from 
the bars from which the lot of rivets is made. 

Tensile Tests, — The rivets for use in the longitudinal seams 
of boiler shells shall have from 58,000 to 67,000 pounds tensile 
strength, with an elongation of not less than 26 per centum ; 
and all others shall have a tensile strength of from 50,000 to 
58,000 pounds, with an elongation of not less than 30 per 
centum in eight (8) inches. 

Hammer Test. — From each lot twelve (12) rivets are to be 
taken at random and submitted to the following tests : 

Four (4) rivets to be flattened out cold under the hammer to 
a thickness of one-half the diameter without showing cracks or 
flaws. 

Four (4) rivets to be flattened out hot under the hammer to 
a thickness of one-third the diameter without showing cracks 
or flaws — the heat to be the working heat when driven. 



96 



Maxims and Instructions. 



STEEL RIVETS. 

Four (4) rivets to be bent cold into the form of a hook with 
parallel sides, without showing cracks or flaws. 

Surface Inspection.—RiYQt^ must be true to form, free from 
scale, fins, seams and all other unsightly or injurious defects. 

In view of the fact that the government is using many hun- 
dred tons of these rivets, shown by the records of the tests to 
be vastly superior to any iron rivet made, in all the essentials 
of a good rivet, it would seem that it would benefit the boiler 
maker, the purchaser of the boiler and also the maker of the 
rivet by adopting a standard steel rivet to be used in all steei 
boilers. 

BEACING OF STEAM BOILERS. 
The material of a boiler being satisfactory and the plates 
being thoroughly and skillfully riveted there remains the im 
portant matter of strengthening the boiler against the enoi 
mous internal pressure not altogether provided for. 




Fig. 42. 

To illustrate the importance of attention to this point it may 
be remarked that a boiler eighteen feet in length by five feet in 
diameter, with 40 four-inch tubes, under a head of 80 pounds 
of steam, has a pressure of nearly 113 tons on each head, 1,625 
tons on the shell and 4,333 tons on the tubes, making a total 
of 6,184 tons on the whole of the exposed surfaces. 

I^'ot only is this immense force to be withstood, but owing 
to the fact that the boiler grows weak with age— « mfety factor 
of six has been adopted by inspectors, L e., the boiler must be 
made six times as strong as needed in every day working prao- 
uoe* 



Maxims a7td Instr^ictions^ 



91 



BRACING OP STEAM B0TLS3?f? 




Fig. 4o. 

Braces in" the Boiler. — The proper bracing of flat sur- 
faces exposed to pressure, is a matter of the greatest impor- 
tance, as the power of resistance to bulging possessed by any 
considerable extent of such a surface, made as they must be in 
the majority of cases of thin plates, is so small ih^it practically 
the whole load has to be carried hy the braces. This being the 
case, it is eviaent that as much attention should be given to 
properly designing, proportioning, distributing and construct- 
ing the brace as to any other portion of the boiler. 

All flat surfaces should be strongly supported with braces of 
the best refined iron, or mild steel, having a tensile strength 
of not less than 58,000 lbs. to the square inch. These braces 
must be provided with crow feet or heavy angle iron properly 
distributed throughout the boiler. 




Fig. 44 



98 



Maxims and Instructions, 



BRACING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

Fig. 43 shows the method usually followed m staying small 
horizontal tubular boilers. The cut represents a 36-mch head 
and there are five braces in each head : two short ones and 
three long ones. The braces should be attached to shell and 
head by two rivets at each end. The rivets should be of such 
size that the combined area of their shanks will be at least 
equal to the body of the brace, and their length should be 
suflBcient to give a good large head on the outside to realize 
strength equal to the body of the brace. 

In boilers with larger diameters, 5 to 8 feet, stay ends are 
made of angle or T iron ; by this arrangement the stays can be 
placed further apart, the angle irons very effectively staying 
the plate between the stays, and thus affording more room in 
the body of the boiler. The size of the stays have to be 
increased in proportion to the greater load they have to 
sustain. See Fig. 43. 

In a 66-inch boiler it is proper to have not less than 10 
braces in each head, none under three feet in length, made of 
the best round iron one inch in diameter, with ends of braces 
made of iron 2^x^ inches with three pieces of T iron riveted 
to head above the tubes to which the braces are attached with 
suitable pins or turned bolts. See Fig. 44. 

Staying of Flat Suefaces. — When boilers are formed 
principally of flat plates, like low-pressure marine boilers, or 
the fire-boxes of locomotive boilers, the form contributes noth- 
ing to the strength, which must, therefore, be provided for by 
staying the opposite furnaces together. Fig. 45 shows the 
arrangement oS ohe stays in a locomotive fire-box. They 
are usually pitched 5! bout 4 inches from centre to centre, and 

are fastened into the opposite 
plates by screwing, as shown, the 
heads being riveted over. Each 
stay has to bear the pressure of 
steam on a square aa, and the 
sectional area of the stay must be 
so chosen that the tensile strength 
will be sufficient to bear the strain 
Fig. 45. with the proper factor of safety. 




Maxims and Instructions, 



99 



BRACING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

If the spaces between the stays are too great, or the plate 
too thin, there is a danger of the structure yielding through 
the plate bulging outwards between the points of attachment 
of the stays, thus allowing the latter to draw through the 
screwed holes made in the plates. 

In designing boilers with stayed surfaces, care should be 
taken that tlie opposite plates connected hy any system of stays 
should, as far as possible, be of equal area, otherwise there is 
sure to be an unequal distribution of load in the stays, some 
receiving more than their pro"i:)er share, and moreover, the 
least supported plate is exposed to the danger of buckling. 

Rule for Fin^ding Pressure or Strain^ on Bolts. 

The absolute stress or strain on a flat surface of a steam 
boiler, which is carried by the stays, can be easily determined 
by a simple rule : 

Choose 3 stays as A B C 
m Fig. 46, measure from A 
to B in inches, and from A 
to C. Multiply these two 
numbers together and the 
result is the number of 
square inches of surface 
depending upon one bolt for 
supporting strength. 

EXA.MPLE. 

Suppose the stays measure 
Fig. 46. from center to center 5 

inches each way with steam at 80 lbs., then 

5X5=25X80=2,000 lbs. borne by 1 stay. 

Note. 

The pressure on the surface does not include the space occu- 
pied by the area of the stay bolt, hence, to be absolutely correct 
that must be deducted. 




JOO 



Maxims and Instructions, 



GUSSET STAYS. 
The flat ends of cylindrical boilers are, especially in marine 
boilers, stayed to tbe round portions of triangular plates of iron 
called gusset stays. These are simply piece s of plate iron 
secured to the boiler frcmt or back, near the top or bottom, by 
means of two pieces of angle iron, then carried to the shell plat- 
ing, and again secured by other pieces of angle bar. This 
arrangement is shown m Fig. 47. 




Fig. 47. 
Palm Stays. — These are shown in Fig. 48, and are often 
used in the same position as a gusset stay; that is, from the 
back or front end of the boiler to the shell plates; they are 
sometimes used to stay the curved tops of combustion cham- 
bers. 





m//// ////////// // / /A /^/////j^/^/y/^///^A 



Fig. 48. 

The two opposite ends are also stayed together by long bar 

stays, running the whole length of the boiler, it is dangerous, 

however, to trust too much to the latter class of stays; for, in 

consequence of the alternate expansion and contraction "whicli 



Maxims and Instructions, 



loi 



SCREWED STAYS. 

takes place every time the boiler is heated and cooled, they 
have p. tendency to work loose at the joints; and if the portion 
of the boiler in which they are situated should happen to be 
hotter than the outside shell, they have a tendency to droop, 
and are then, perfectly useless. 

RIVETED OR SCREW STAYS. 




Fig. 49. 

In addition to palm and gussot stays, there are in use riveted 
or screwed stays, as showu in Fig. 49. 

This would not answer in furnaces, owing to the burning off 
of the heads, hence driven stays are used there. 





Fig. 50. 

These screwed stays, shown in Fig. 50, are used (in marine 
and similar boilers) between the combustion chamber back and 
boiler back and also between the sides of the combustion cham- 
bers. 

The general plan is to have a large nut and washer inside and 
outside the boiler with the outside washer considerably larger 
than the inside, so as to hold more efficiently the back and 
front ends together. 

In marine boilers it is customary to place the stays 15 to 18 
inches apart for ease of access to the parts of the boiler, and to 
make them of 2i to 2J inch iron of the best quality. 



t02 Maxims and Instructions^ 



INSPECTOR'S RULES RELATINO TO BRACES IN STEAM BOIL- 
ERS, ALSO TO BE OBSERVED BY ENGINEERS 

Where flat surfaces exist, the inspector must satisfy him- 
self that the spacing and distance apart of the bracing, and all 
other parts of the boiler, are so arranged that all will be of not 
less strength than the shell, and he must also after applying 
the hydrostatic test, thoroughly examine every part of the boiler. 

No braces or stays employed in the construction of marine 
boilers shall be allowed a greater strain than six thousand 
pounds per square inch of section, and no screw stay bolt shall 
be allowed to be used in the construction of marine boilers in 
which salt water is used to generate steam, unless said stay 
bolt is protected by a socket. But such screw stay bolts, with- 
out sockets, may be used in staying the fire boxes and furnaces 
of such boiler, and not elsewhere, when fresh water is used for 
generating steam in said boiler. Water used from a surface 
condenser shall be deemed fresh water. And no brace or stay 
bolt used in a marine boiler will be allowed to be placed more 
than eight and one-half inches from centre to centre, except that 
flat surfaces, other than those on fire boxes, furnaces and back 
connections, may be reinforced by a washer or T iron of such 
size and thickness as would not leave such flat surface unsup- 
ported at a greater distance, in any case, than eight and one- 
half inches, and such flat surface shall not be of less strength 
than the shell of the boiler, and able to resist the same strain 
and pressure to the square inch, and no braces supporting such 
flat reinforced surfaces, will be allowed more than 16 inches 
apart. 

In allowing the strain on a screw stay bolt, the diameter of 
the same shall be determined by the diameter at the bottom 
of the thread. Many State laws and City ordinances allow a 
strain of seven thousand five hundred pounds per square inch 
of section on good bracing without welds. The following table 
fCives the safe load of round iron braces or stays. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



'03 



DIAMETER OF BRAGBL 



Tensile 






















strength per 
square inch of 


r 


r 


r 


r 


1" 


ir 


U" 


H" 


If" 


2" 


section allowed 






















5000 


981 


1533 


2208 


3006 


3927 


4970 


6136 


8835 


12026 


15708 


6000 


1178 


1840 


2650 


3607 


4712 


5964 


7363 


10602 


14431 


18849 


7000 


1374 


2567 


3092 


4209- 


5497 


6958 


8590 


12369 


16837 


21991 


7500 


1473 


2750 


3313 


4509 


5890 


7455 


9204 


13253 


18039 


»3562 



Shop Names for Boiler Braces. — 1. Gusset brace (fig.47) 
2. Crowfoot brace. 3. Jaw brace (fig. 44). 4. Head to head 
brace (fig 50). These shop terms refer to braces used in the 
tubular form of boiler. 

A Stay and a Brace in a steam boiler fulfil the same office, 
that of withstanding the pressure exerted outward of the ex- 
panded and elastic steam. 

Socket Bolts are frequently used instead of the screw stay- 
between the inside and outside plates that form the centre 
space. Socket bolts are driven hot the same as rivets. 

The method of bracing with X bars is considered the best; 
the bars make the flat surface rigid and unyielding even 
before the brace is applied. The braces should be spaced 
about 8 inches apart on the T bar and 7 inches from the edge 
of the flange T the bar should be 4" X 4"-J" X iron and riveted to 
the head or flat surface with JJ" rivets spaced 4^ inches apart. 

HoLLOTV Stay Bolts are used in locomotive tire boxes to 
show when fracture has occurred by T)ermitting an escape of 
steam or water. 

The flange of a boiler head ^" thick will amply support 6 
inches from the edge of the flange. 

A radius of 2 inches is ample for bend of flange on the head. 
The lower braces should be started 6 inches above the top row 
of tubes. Braces should be fitted so as to have a straight pull, 
L e, parallel with the boiler shell. The heads of the boiler 
should be perfectly straight before the braces are fitted in place. 
Gusset brace plates should not be less than 30 inches long and 
14 inches wide. Braces are best made of 1 inch O iron of 
highest efficacy with tensile strength of not less than 68,000 
lbs. to the square inch. 



lO^ 



Maxims and Instructions, 



POINTS RELATING TO BOILER BRACES. 

The riveted stay shown in Fig. 51, 



i 



consists of a long rivet, passed 

VA through a thimble or distance piece 

~C\ of wrought iron pipe placed between 

'p plates, to be stayed together, and 

^ then riveted over in the usual man^ 

^ ner. 



Fig. 51. 



An ingenious device is in use to show when a bolt has broken. 
A small hole is drilled into the head, extending a little way 
beyond the plate, and as experience shows that the fracture 
nearly always occurs next to the outside plate, that is the end 
taken for the bored out head: when the bolt is broken the rush 
of steam through the small hole shows the danger vrithout 
causing serious disturbance. 

Even where the best of iron is used for stay bolts they should 
never be exposed to more than uith or iVth their breaking 
strength. 

The stays should be well fitted, and each one carefully tight- 
ened, and, as far as possible each stay in a group should have 
the same regular strain upon it— it the '* pull " all should come 
on one the whole are liable to give way. 



DiME2fsiONS AifD Shape oe Au^gle and T Iron. 



ANGLt IRON. 



TEE 




Fig. 52. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



^05 



POINTS RELATING TO BOILER BRACES. 

The condition of a boiler can be learned by tapping on the 
sheets, rivets, seams, etc., to ascertain whether there are any 
broken stays, laminated places, broken rivets^ etc. 




c 




Fig. A. 



Fig. B. 



Fig. A represents the method of preparing testing pieces of 
boiler plate, for the machines prepared specially to measure 
their elongation before breaking, and also the number of pounds 
they will bear stretching before giving way. Fig. B exhibits 
the same with reference to the brace and other O iron. 



KULES AND TABLES 

FOR DETERMINING AREAS AND CALCULATING THE CONTENTS 
OF STEAM AND WATER SPACES IN THE STEAM BOILER. 

In ord^r to ascertain the number of braces, which are neces- 
sary to strengthen that part of the boiler head, which is not 
stayed by the tubes, it is first necessary to know its area ; the 
part to be stayed is a segment of a circle. 

The length of the segment is measured above the top row of 
the tubes, and its height or width is equal to the distance from 
the top of the tubes to the top of the boiler shell. 

Since, however, part of this segment is braced by the boiler 
shell, and also by the top row of the tubes, it has been generally 
agreed that the length of the segment should be measured two 
inches above the tubes, and the neight or width, should be 
measured from a line, drawn two inches above the tubes, to a 
point within three inches from the top oi the boiler shell, as 



io6 



Maxims and Instructions, 



STEAM AND WATER SPACES^ 
shown in the illustration by the dotted line. Thus, referring 
to Fig, D, the length of the segment is equal to 1, and the 
height is equal to h. 

Rule. The area of a segment may be obtained, very ap- 
proximately, by dividing the cute of the width {or height) hy 
twice the length of the chtrd, and adding to the quotient the 
product of the width into tivo-thirds of the chord. 

Example. If we suppose the height h of the segment in 
Fig. D to be equal to 18 inches, and the length 1 to be equal 
to 48 inches, we have 

18 X 18 X 18 

48 X^— = ^^-^ 
48 X 2 X 18 



+ 



576.0 

636.7 square) mches. 




Fig. a Fig. D. 

In order to calculate the contents of the steam and water 
spaces of a boiler, the same rule, as above, may be e:iiph)yed. 
The volume of the steam space may be readily obtained by the 
above rule, taking the distance from the water level to the top of 
the shell for the height, and the diameter of the shell, measured 
at the water line, for the length of the segment lines. 

The area of the segment thus found, expressed in square 
inches, divided by 144, and multiplied by the length of the 
boiler in feet, is equal to the steam space, in cubic feet, this re- 
sult is slightly reduced by the space occupied by the braces. 
^ In order to find the volume of the water space, it is first 
necessary to Und the total area of the boiler head^ and this. 



Maxima and Instructions. loj 



EULES FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF STAYS. 
minus the area of the segment above the water tine, is equal to 
the area of the segment below the water line . From this must 
also be subtracted the combined cross sectional area of the tubes. 
Thus, the rule for finding the volume of the steam space in 
cubic feet. 

1, Find the area of the segment of *Jie boiler head, above the 
water line, in square inches, 

2. Divide this by 144, and multiply the quotient by the 
length of the boiler in feet. 

To find the volume of the waterspace in cubic feet. 

1. Find the area of the boder head in square inches, 

2. Multiply, the square of the outside diameter of one tube 
by .7854, and 7nultiply this by the number of tubes, and add 
to the product, the area of the segment abore the waterline, 

3. Subtract 2 from 1, and divide the remainder by 144. 

4. Multiply the quotient by the length of the boiler in feet. 

To find the number of braces, necessary for the tiat surface 
above the tubes. 

1. Find the area of the segment of the boiler head^ which is 
to be braced, i>i square inches, 

2. Multiply the area, thus found, by the steam pessure in 
pounds per square inch, 

3. Multiply the cross sectional area of one brace by the num- 
ber of pounds, which it is allowed to carry, per square inch of 
section, 

4. Divide product 2 by product 3, and the result is the num- 
ber of braces, required for the head. 

Table No. 1 gives the total area in square inches. No. 2, 
areas to be braced. No. 3, number of braces of one inch 
round iron required, allowing seven thousand five hundred 
pounds per square inch of section at one hundred pounds 
steam pressure. 

Table No. 3 will be found of more practical use than Table 
2, for it gives directly the number of braces required m any 
given boiler, instead of the area to be braced. It was calcu- 
lated from Table 2. The iron used in braces will safely stand 



jo8 



Maxims and Instructions, 



TABLES FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF STAYS, 
a continuous pull of 7,500 pounds to the square inch, which 
is the figure used in computing the foregoing table. A round 
brace an inch in diameter has a sectional area of .7854 of an 
inch, and the strain that it will safely withstand is found by 
multiplying .7854 by 7,500, which gives 5,890 pounds as the 
safe working strain on a brace of one-inch round iron. 

In a 60-inch boiler, whose upper tubes are 28 inches be- 
low the shell, the area to be braced is, according to table, 
930 square inches. If the pressure at which it is to be run 
is 100 pounds to the square inch, the entire pressure on the 
area to be braced will be 93,000 pounds, and this is the 
strain that must be withstood by the braces. As one brace 
of inch-round iron will safely stand 5,890 pounds, the boiler 
will need* as many braces as 5,890 is contained in 93,000, 
which is 15.8. That is, 16 braces will be required. The 
table is made out on the basis of 100 lbs. pressure to the square 
inch, because that is a very convenient number. 

TABLsNa 1. TOTAL AREA ABOVE TUBES OR FLUES. 
(SQ(7A£B Incehes.) 



Height from 


DIAMETER OF BOILER IN INCHED 


Height from 


tubes to 
















tubes to 


ehelL 


88 


42 


48 


fiA 


60 


06 


92 


shdl. 


15 


889 














16 


16 


419 














10 


17 


458 


696 












17 


18 




566 


620 


667 








18 


19 




608 


667 


720 








19 


20 




650 


714 


770 


824 






20 


21 






756 


824 


882 






21 


22 






808 


878 


937 






22 


23 








930 


996 


1059 




23 


24 








982 


1056 


1121 




24 


25 








1037 


1116 


1184 




25 


26 








1090 


1209 


1252 


1324 


26 


27 








1145 


1234 


1316 


1394 


27 


28 










1291 


1381 


1465 


28 


20 










1352 


1445 


1536 


29 


80 










1414 


1511 


1608 


80 


81 












1576 


1674 


81 


82 












1641 


1746 


82 


88 














1818 


88 


84 














1896 


84 



Maxims and Instructions, 



log 



TABLES FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF BRACES. 
Table 2. AREAS TO BE BRACED (Square Inches.) 



Height from 
tubes to 


DIAMETER OP BOILER IN INCHES. 


TTp.if'lit. "frnm 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


tubes to 


shell. 
















• shell. 


15 


206 














15 


16 


235 














16 


17 


264 


297 












17 


18 




381 


365 


896 








18 


19 




816 


404 


439 








19 


20 




401 


444 


483 


519 






20 


21 






485 


528 


568 






31 


22 






626 


574 


618 






33 


23 








620 


668 


714 




38 


24 








667 


720 


769 




34 


25 








714 


772 


825 




35 


26 








761 


824 


882 


987 


36 


27 








809 


877 


940 


998 


37 


28 










930 


998 


1061 


38 


29 










983 


1056 


1124 


39 


30 










1037 


1115 


1187 


30 


31 












1174 


1252 


31 


33 












1234 


1317 


33 


33 














1383 


33 


34 














1447 


34 



Table 3. 



NUMBER OF BRACES REQUIRED, AT 100 LBS. 
PRESSURE. 



Height from 

tubes to 

shell. 


DIAMETER OF 


' BOILER IN INCHES. 1 


Height from 

tubes to 

shell. 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


15 


8.6 














15 


16 


4.0 














16 


17 


4.6 


6.0 












17 


18 




5.6 


6.3 


6.7 








18 


19 




6.3 


6.9 


7.5 








19 


20 




6.8 


7.5 


8.3 


8.9 






30 


21 






8.2 


9.0 


9.6 






31 


23 






8.9 


9.8 


10.5 






33 


23 








10.5 


11.3 


13.1 




33 


24 








11.8 


13.3 


18.1 




24 


25 








13.1 


13.1 


14.0 




25 


26 








13 9 


14.0 


15.0 


15.9 


36 


27 








13.7 


14.9 


16.0 


16.9 


37 


28 










15.8 


16.9 


18.0 


38 


29 










16.7 


17.9 


19.1 


39 


30 










17.6 


18.9 


30.3 


30 


31 












19.9 


21.3 


31 


32 












31 


32.4 


33 


83 














38.5 


33 


84 














24.9 


84 



no 



Maxims and Instructiofis^ 



BOILER TUBES. 
In Table 2 this calculation has been made for all sizes of 
boilers that are ordinarily met with. The area to be braced 
has been calculated as above in each case, the two-inch strip 
above the tubes, and the three-inch strip around the shell be- 
ing taken into account. As an example of its use, let us 
suppose that upon measuring a boiler we find that its diam- 
eter is 54 inches, and that the distance from the upper 
tubes to the top of the shell is 25 inches. Then by looking 
m the table under 54" and opposite 25" we find 714, which is 
the number of square inches that requires staying on each 
head. 



BOILER TUBES. 

Table. 
Dimensions of Lap Welded Boiler Tubes, 



Size outside 
diameter. 


Wire Gnage. 


Weight per 
foot. 


Size outside 
diameter. 


Wire Gauge. 
11 


Weight per 
foot. 


1 inch. 


15 


0.708 


3|- inches. 


4.272 


li" 


15 


0.9 


3f '* 


11 


4.590 


li " 


14 


1.250 


4 '* 


10 


5.320 


If " 


13 


1.665 


^ « 


10 


6.010 


2 " 


13 


1.981 


5 « 


9 


7.226 


2i '* 


13 


2.238 


6 ** 


8 


9.346 


H " 


12 


2.755 


7 


8 


12.435 


2f " 


12 


3.045 


8 " 


8 


15.109 


3 " 


12 


3.333 


9 


H 




3i " 


11 


3.958 


10 ^< 


6i 





The above is the regular manufacturers'* list of sizes and 
weights. 

Note. 

Boiler tubes are listed and described from the outside diame- 
ter. This should be noted, as gas-pipe is described from the 
inside diameter. Thus a 1-inch gas-pipe is nearly li outside 
diameter while a 1-inch boiler tube is exactly one inch. 
Another difference between the two consists in the fact that 
the outside of boiler tubes is rolled smooth and even ; gas-pipe 
is left comparatively rough and uneven. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



III 



BOILER TUBES. 

When the boiler tubes are new and properly expanded there 
is a large reserve or surplus of holding power for that part of 
the tube sheet supported by them, this has been proved by ex- 
periment made by chief engineer W. H. Stock, U. S. N., as 
shown in the following 

Table of Holding Power of Boiler Tubes. 



a o © o 



Ai 



to 


© 1 






«i-i 


OVi 


o 


^° 


1 ce 




r t- 


ccd 


1 < 


5 



DC -tJ 
CO eg 

^ © 



B .9 

o 

P4 



Inches. Sq. ins. Inches.! Pounds, 

2f I .981 I ^ 22650 



Method of Fastening. 



n 


.981 

1 


h 


22150 


n 


.981 


f 


25525 


2f 


' .981 

1 


» 


29675 


8J 


.981 


f 


13050 



Expanded by Dudgeon tool, end 

riveted over. 
Expanded by Dudgeon tool, end 

partly riveted over. 
Expanded by Dudgeon tool, end 

riveted over. 
Expanded by Dudgeon tool, fer- 

ruled, not riveted over. 
Simply expanded by Dudgeon 

tool. 



Mr. 0. B. Eichards, consulting engineer at Colt's Armory at 
Hartford, Conn., made some experiments as to the holding 
power of tubes in steam boilers, with the following results : 
The tubes were 3 inches in external diameter, and 0.109 of an 
inch thick, simply expanded into a sheet % of an inch thick by 
a Dudgeon expander. The greatest stress without the tubes 
yielding in the plate was 4,500 pounds, and at 5,000 pounds 
was drawn from the sheet. These experiments were repeated 
with the ends of the tubes which projected through the sheet 
three-sixteenths of an inch, being flared so that the external 
diameter in the sheet was expanded to 3.1 inches. The great- 
est stress without yielding was 18,500 pounds; at 19,000 pounds 
yielding was observed; and at 19,500 pounds it was drawn from 
the sheet. The force was applied parallel to the axis of the 
tube, and the sheet surfaces were held at right angles to the 
tube axis. 



112 Maxims and Instructions^ 

BOILER TUBES. 

Note, 

"When the tube sheet and tube ends near the sheet become 
coated with scale or the tubes become overheated, the holding 
power of the tubes becomes largely reduced, and caution must 
be used in having the tube ends re-expanded and accumulated 
scale removed. 

Note 2. — In considering the stress or strain upon the expand- 
ed or riveted over ends of a set of boiler tubes, it may be re- 
membered that the strain to be provided against is only that 
coming upon tube plate, exposed to pressure, hetiueen ilie tube 
ends — the space occupied by the tubes has no strain upon it. 

The gauge to be employed by inspectors to determine the 
thickness of boiler plates will be any standard American gauge 
furnished by the Treasury Department. 

All samples intended to be tested on the Riehle, Fairbanks, 
Olson, or other reliable testing machine, must be prepared in 
form according to the following diagram, viz.: eight inches in 
length, two inches in width, cut out their centres as indi- 
cated. 




Fig. E. 

Portions of the Marine Boiler which Become Thin 

BY Wear. 
These are generally situated, 1st, at or a little above the line 
of fire bars in the furnace; 2d, the ash pits; 3d, combustion 
chamber backs; 4th, shell at water line; 5th, front and bottom 
of boiler. 

The thinning can usually be detected by examination, sound- 
ing with a round nosed hammer, or drilling small holes in 
sasoected parts not otherwise accessible for examination. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



113 



c^ 



^As 



^ 



^ 



y/s' 



EXAMPLES OF 
CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING 

The small table at the left is of use in this 
and the four succeeding pages ; in all places 
in the drawings where *' d '' is used it indi- 
cates the diameter of the rivet ; ^'i'^ means 
the thickness of the plate ; '^p^'' stands for 



i^ 



S/M 



s/9 



jL 



% 



^/6 



yy/6 



/^^ 



/J/^^ 



s/s 



^: 



r/c? 



d = l\m. OF RIVET. 
f = THIRKH£SS OF PLATE. 



pitch. The table also shows the proportion 
of rivet to the plate — thus, a J-inch plate 
requires a t^ rivet, etc. 

It is recommended, in view of the in- 
creased disposition on the part of official examiners to test the 
applicant's knowledge of drawing, for any one interested, to 
redraw to a full size all the rivets, ])lates, and methods of join- 
ing the two contained on pages 113-116. 





PAN HEAD 
, 15^*^1 - 



Kg. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



The figures 53 to 60 will be understood without much expla- 
nation. 

In figures 53 and 54 the cup head, the conical Tiead and pan 
head rivets are shown. 

Figs. 55 and 56 exhibit the details (and drawings) of single 
and double riveting. Where the cut reads p=24d, it means 
that the distance from the centre of one rivet to the cen- 
tre of the next shall be 2i the diameter of the rivet, see ex- 
ample, page 115. 



JI4 



Maxims and InstrzLctions, 



CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. 




Fig. 65. 




Fie. 56. 



1^5 



Maxims and Instructions, 



CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. 



Example. 

If the size of the rivet used is Jths, then |x'^t=2T^o inches 
nearly, and this gives the proportionate strength of the plate 
and the rivet, see page 113. 



t.ZW<^^7J^u \iM^^ 



COMBINED LAP AND BUT^JOINl 

X ^^^. 




^ 



COMPIETE THE PLAN. 



VA'/- 



'w/////m f^ 





^yfiU^ A^ -i^-^^e^- ..)^-tid^ ^ 



IS - 

___ 





J'_.-_ 




l^t'. 57. 



Figs. 67, 58, 5;; and 6C show qnite clearly the joints and 
rivet work done in locomotive and marine work. Fig. 60 shows 
method of riveting 3 plates. A, B, and 0, together. 



ii6 



Alaxims and Imtructions. 



CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. 



SBcnoN AT A B 



3 /d'^^ 




SECTION AT C D. 






Rg-sa 




Flg.S9. 



I — f 



SECTION AT E F., 


















.-.^^B 







r'\* 






Fig. 60. 







Maxims and Instructions, lij 

BULE FOR SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE. 

The safe internal pressure on cylindrical shells is found 
according to the following rule, which has been adopted by the 
United. States Board of Supervising Inspectors, and any boiler 
shell not found in the tables can be determined by this rule. 

Rule. — Multiply one-sixth of the lowest tensile strength 
found stamped on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the 
thickness — expressed in inches or parts of an inch — of the 
thinnest plate in the same cylindrical shell, and divide by the 
radius or half diameter — also expressed in inches — and the re- 
sult will be the pressure allowable per square inch of surface 
for single riveting, to which add twenty per centum for double 
riveting. 

The hydrostatic pressure applied, under this table and rule, 
must be in the proportion of one hundred and fifty ])ounds to 
the square inch, to one hundred pounds to the square inch of 
the working pressure allowed. 



Example. 

What pressure should be allowed to be carried on a boiler 60^' 
diameter, made of plates f " thick, having a tensile strength of 
60,000 pounds ? Now then : 

6)60,000 

10,000 
3 



8)30,000 

Half diam. 30)3750(125. lbs.— if single riveted. 
30 

75 
60 

150 125+25 lbs. (20 feet)=150 for 

150 double riveted. 



ji8 



Maxims and Instructions, 



TABLES SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE 



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'^^BLES SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE. 



Thickness ivHeoiocoo>--Heo»ot 



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Afaximji and Insfrurtzom 



TABLES SAFK TKTKT?NAL PRESSURE. 

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Maxims and Instructions, 121 

DEFINITION" OF TERMS. 
In the accompanying sections, some of the properties of iron 
and steel, as employed in the construction of boilers, are given. 
It is, therefore, desirable that the meanings applied to the vari- 
ous terms used should be clearly understood. The definitions 
necessary are, then, briefly as follows : — 

Tensile strength is equivalent to the amount of force 
which, steadily and siowly applied in a line with the axis of the 
test piece, just overcomes the cohesion of the particles, and 
pulls it into separate parts. 

Contraction of area is the amount by which the area, 
at the point where the specimen has broken, is reduced below 
what it was before any strain or pulling force was applied. 

Elongation is the amount to which the specimen stretches, 
between two fixed points, due to a steady and slowly applied 
force, which pulls and separates it into parts. Elongation is 
made up of two parts : one due to the general stretch, more or 
less, over the length ; the other, due to contraction of area at 
about the point of fracture. 

Shearing strength is equivalent to the force which, if 
steadily and slowly applied at right angles, or nearly so, to the 
line of axis of the rivet, causes it to separate into parts, which 
slide over each other, the planes of the surface at the point of 
separation being at right angles, or nearly so, to the axis of the 
rivet. 

Elastic limit is the point where the addition to the per- 
manent set produced by each equal increment of load or force, 
steadily and slowly applied, ceases to be fairly uniform, and is 
suddenly, after the point is reached, increased in amount. It 
is expressed as a percentage of the tensile strength. 

Tongh. — The material is said to be ^' tough" when it can 
be bent first in one direction, then in the other, without frac- 
turing. The greater the angles it bends through (coupled with 
the number of times it bends), the tougher it is. 

Ductile. — The material is ^^ ductile" when it can be ex- 
tended by a pulling or tensile force and remain extended after 
the force is removed. The greater the permanent extension, 
the more ductile the material. 



122 Maxims and Instructions. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS. 

Elasticity is that quality in a material by which, after 
being stretched or compressed by force, it apparently regains 
its original dimensions when the force is removed. 

Fatigued is a term applied to the material when it has 
lost in some degree its power of resistance to fracture, due to 
the repeated application of forces, more particularly when the 
forces or strains have varied considerable in amount. 

Malleable is a term applied to the material when it can 
be extended by hammering, rolling, or otherwise, without frac- 
turing, and remains extended. The more it can be extended 
without being fractured, the more malleable it is. 

Weldable is a term applied to the material if it can be 
united, when hot, by hammering or pressing together the 
heated parts. The nearer the properties of the material, after 
being welded, are to what they were before being heated and 
welded, the more weldable it is. 

Cold-sliort is a name given to the material when it cannot 
be worked under the hammer or by rolling, or be bent when 
cold without cracking at the edges. Such a material may be 
worked or bent when at a great heat, but not at any tempera- 
ture which is lower than about that assigned to dull red. 

Hot-short is when the material cannot be easily worked 
under the hammer, or by rolling at a red-heat at any tempera 
ture which is higher than about that assigned to a red-heat, 
without fracturing or cracking. Such a material may be 
worked or bent at a less heat. 

Homogeneous describes a material which is all of the 
same structure and nature. 

A homogeneous material is the best for boilers, and it should 
be of suitable tensile strength with contraction of area and 
elongation best suited for the purpose, having an elastic limit 
that will insure the structure being reliable ; it should be tough 
and ductile, and its elasticity fairly good, and be capable of 
enduring strains without becoming too quickly or easily fatigued. 
The material should be malleable and in some cases weldable ; 
that which is of a decidedly cold-short or hot-short nature 
should be avoided. 



Maxims ajid Instructions, 



^^3 



BOILEE EEPAIRS, 



This cut represents a form of 
clamp used in holding the 
plates against each other when 
being riveted. 





Fig. 66. 

i'ig. 67 represents a pecuHar form of bolt for screw 
ing a patch to a boiler. It is threaded into the 
boiler plate, the champer rests against the patch 
and the square is for the application of the 
wrench. After the bolt is well in place, the 
head can be cut off with a cold chisel. 



Fig. 67. 



REPAIRmG CRACKS. 

Cracks in the crown-sheet or side of a fire-box boiler, or top 
head of the upright boiler can be temj)orarily repaired by a row 
of holes drilled and tapped touching one another, with f or -J 
Inch copper plugs or bolts, screwed into the plates and after- 
wards all hammered together. 

Eor a permanent job, cut out the defect and rivet on a patch. 
This had better be put on the inside, so as to avoid a *' pocket " 
for holding the dirt. In putting on all patches, the defective 
part must be entirely removed to the solid iron, especially when 
exposed to the fire. 

Note. — When fire comes to two surfaces of any consider- 
able extent, the plate next to the fire becomes red-hot and 
weakens, hence the inside plate, in repairs, must be removed. 

The application of steel patches to iron boilers is injudicious. 
Steel and iron differ structurally and in every other particular, 
and their expansion and contraction under the influence of 
changing temperatures, is such that trouble is sure to result 
irom their combination. 



12^ 



Maxims and Instructions, 



DEFECTS AND NECESSARY REPAIES. 




Fig. B8. 
heated and expanded tubes. 



Fig. 68 represents a patch called 
a ^' spectacle piece." This isnsed 
to repair a crack situated between 
the tube ends. These are usually 
caused (if the metal is not of bad 
quality) by allowing incrustation 
to collect on the plate inside the 
boiler, or by opening the furnace 
and smoke doors, thus allowing a 
current of cold air to contract the 
metal of the plates round the 



The *^ spectacle piece" is bored out to encircle the tubes 
adjacent to the crack, or in other words, to be a duplicate of 
a portion of the tube plate cracked. These plates are then 
pinned on to the tube covering the crack. 

Steam generators, as they are exposed to more or less of try- 
ing service in steam production, develop almost an unending 
number and variety of defects. 

When a boiler is new and first set up it is supposed to be clean, 
inside and out, but even one day's service changes its condition ; 
sediment has collected within and soot and ashes without. 



Unlike animals and plants they have no recuperative powers 
of their own — whenever they become weakened at any point the 
natural course of the defect is to become continually worse. 

In nothing can an engineer better show his true fitness than 
in the treatment of the beginnings of defects as they show 
themselves by well-known signs of distress, such as leaks of 
water about the tube ends, and in the boiler below the water 
line, or escaping steam above it. In more serious cases, the 
professional services of a skillful and honest boiler maker is 
the best for the occasion. 



Maxims and Instructions, 12^ 

DEFECTS AND NECESSARY REPAIRS. 
In a recent report given in by the Inspectors the following 
list of defects in boilers coming under their observation was 
reported. The items indicate the nature of the natural decay 
to which steam boilers in active use are exposed. The added 
column under the heading of *' dangerous '' carries its own 
lesson, urging the importance of vigilance and skill on the 
part of the engineer in charge. 

Nature of Defects. Whole Number. Dangerous. 

Cases of deposit of sediment 419 36 

Cases of incrustation and scale 596 44 

Cases of internal grooving 25 16 

Cases of internal corrosion 139 21 

Cases of external corrosion 347 II4 

Broken and loose braces and stays 83 50 

Settings defective 129 14 

Furnaces out of shape 171 14 

Fractured plates ,. . . , 181 84 

Burned plates 93 31 

Blistered plates 232 22 

Cases of defective riveting 306 34 

Defective heads 36 20 

Serious leakage around tube ends 549 57 

Serious leakage at seams 214 53 

Defective water gauges 128 14 

Defective blow-offs 45 9 

Cases of deficiency of water 9 4 

Safety-valves overloaded 22 7 

Safety-valves defective m construction. . 41 16 

Pressure-gauges defective 211 29 

Boiler without pressure-gauges 3 

This list covers nearly, if not all, the points of danger against 
which the vigilance of both engineer and fireman should be 
continually on guard ; and is worth constant study until thor- 
oughly memorized. 

Note. 

Probably one-quarter, if not one-third, of all boiler-work is 
done in the way of repairs, hence the advice of men who have 
had long experience in the trade is the one safe thing to follow 
for the avoidance of danger and greater losses, and for the 
best results the united opinion of 1, the engineer, experienced 
in his own boiler and 2, the boiler-maker with his wider ob- 
servation and 3, the owner of the steam plant, all of whom are 
most interested. 



126 Maxims and Instructions, 

DEFECTS AND NECESSARY REPAIRS. 

Corrosion is a trouble from whicli few if any boilers escape. 
The principal causes of external corrosion arise from nndue ex- 
posure to the weather, improper setting, or possibly damp 
brick work, leakage consequent upon faulty construction, or 
negligence on the part of those having them m charge. 

Internal corrosion may be divided into ordinary corroding, or 
rusting and pitting. Ordinary corrosion is sometimes uniform 
through a large portion of the boiler, but is often found in iso- 
lated patches which have been difficult to account for. Pit- 
ting is still more capricious in the location of its attack ; it may 
be described as a series of holes often running into each other 
in lines and patches, eaten into the surface of the iron to a 
depth sometiuies of one-quarter of an inch. Pitting is the 
more dangerous form of corrosion, and the dangers are increased, 
when its existence is hidden beneath a coating of scale. There 
is another form of decay in boilers known as grooving ; it may 
be described as surface cracking of iron, caused by its expan- 
sion and contraction, under the influence of differing tempera- 
tures. It IS attributable generally to the too great rigidity oi 
the parts of the boiler affected, and it may be looked upon as 
resulting from faulty consiruction. 



Fig. 



In plugging a leaky tube with a pine plug, make a small 
hole, of i\ of an inch diameter, or less, running through it 
from end to end. These plugs should never have a taper of 
more than \ of an inch to the foot. It is well to have a few 
plugs always on hand. Fig. 69 exhibits the best shape for the 
wooden plug. 



Maxims and Instructions, I2j 

QUESTIONS 

BY THE PROPRIETOR TO THE E]SrGINEER IK CHARGE, RELAT- 
ING TO CONDITION OF THE BOILER. 

How long since you were inside your boiler? 

Were any of the braces slack? 

Were any of the pms out of the braces? 

Did all the braces ring alike? 

Did not some of them sound like a fiddle-string? 

Did you notice any scale on flues or crown sheet? 

If you did, when do you intend to remove it? 

Have you noticed any evidence of bulging in the fire-box 
plates? 

Do you know of any leaky socket bolts? 

Are any of the flange joints leaking? 

Will your safety-valve blow off itself, or does it stick a little 
sometimes? 

Are there any globe valves between the safety-valve and the 
boiler? They should be taken out at once, if there are. 

Are there any defective plates anywhere about your boiler? 

Is the boiler so set that you can inspect every part of it 
when necessary? 

If not, how can you tell in what condition the plates are? 
Are not some of the lower courses of tubes or flues in your 
boiler choked with soot or ashes? 

Do you absolutely know, of your own knowledge, that your 
boiler is in safe and economical working order, or do you 
merely suppose it is? 

QUESTIONS 

ASKED OF A CANDIDATE FOR A MARINE LICENSE RELATING TO 
DEFECTS IN BOILER WITH ANSWERS. 

If you find a thin plate, what would you do? 
Put a patch on. 



J 28 Maxims and Instructions, 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATING TO THE MARINE 

BOILER. 

Would you put it on inside or outside? 
Inside. 

Why so? 
Because the action that has weakened the plate will then 
act or the patch, and when this is worn it can be replaced; but 
the plate remains as we found it. 

If the patch were put on the outside, the action would still 
be on the plate,, which would in time be worn through, then 
the pressure of the steam would force the water between the 
plate and the patch, and so corrode it; and during a jerk or 
extra pressure, the patch might be blown off. 

It is on the same principle that mud- hole doors are on the 
inside. 

If you found several thin places, what would you do? 
Patch each, and reduce the pressure. 

If you found a blistered plate? 
Put a patch on the fire side. 

If you found a plate at the bottom buckled? 

Put a stay through the centre of the buckle. 
If you found several? 

Stay each, and reduce the pressure. 
The crown of the furnace down? 

Put a stay through the middle, and a dog across the top. 
If a length of the crown were down, put a series of stays 
and dogs. 

A cracked plate? 

Drill a hole at each end of the crack; caulk the crack, or 
put a patch over it. 

If the water in the boiler is suffered to get too low, what 
may be the consequence? 

Burn the top of the combustion chamber and the tubes; 
perhaps cause an explosion. 
If suffered to get too high ? 
Cause priming; perhaps cause the breaking of the cylin- 
der oovers. 



Maxims and Instructions, I2g 



THE INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

Let it be clearly understood that if there were no steam 
generators using steam under pressure there would he no boiler 
inspection, and no licensing of engineers ; it requires no license 
to be a machinist or a machine tender, no more would a license 
be essential to run a steam engine, except it were connected 
with the boiler. The danger to the piihlic arising from their 
use requires that the care and management of high-pressure 
steam boilers shall be in hauds of careful, experienced and nat- 
urally ingenious men, hence it is on the affairs of the Boiler 
Room that the first tests are made, as to the worthiness of an 
aspirant for an engineer's license, hence, too, the success of 
many firemen in obtaining the preference over engine-builders 
or school graduates, in the line of promotion as steam en= 
gineers. 

The inspection laws of the various states and cities are 
framed after substantially the same leading ideas, and in 
presenting one the others may be assumed to be nearly the 
same. 

The special province of the Steam Boiler Inspection and 
Engineers' Bureau in the police department in New York 
City is to inspect and test all the steam boilers in the citv, 
at certain stated periods, and to examine every applicant for 
the position of engineer as to his ability and qualifications for 
running an engine and boiler with safety. 

According to the laws of the State, every owner, agent or 
lessee, of a. steam boiler or boilers, in the city of New York, 
shall annually report to the board of police, the location of said 
.boiler or boilers, and, thereupon, the officers in command of 
the sanitary company shall detail a practical engineer, who 
shall proceed to inspect such steam boiler or boilers, and all 
apparatus and appliances connected therewith. 

When a notice is received from any owner or agent that he 
has one or more boilers for inspection, a printed blank is re- 
turned to him stating that on the day named therein the boilers 



I JO Maxims and Instructions, 

INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

will be tested, and he is asked to make full preparation for 
the inspection by complying with the following rules: 

Be ready to test at the above-named time. 

Have boiler filled with water to safety-valve. 

Have l^-inch connection. 

Have steam gauge. 

Steam allowed two-thirds amount of hydrostatic pressure. 

More particularly stated, the following have been adopted 
by one or more Inspection Companies ; 

How TO Prepare for Steam-Boiler Inspection. 

1. Haul fires and all ashes from furnaces and ash pits. 

2. If time will permit, allow boiler and settings to cool 
gradually until there is no steam pressure, then allow water to 
run out of boilers. It is best that steam pressure should not 
exceed ten pounds if used to blow water out. 

3. Inside of boiler should be washed and dried through man- 
holes and handholes by hose service and wiping. 

4. Keep safety-valves and gauge-cocks open. 

5. Take off manhole and handhole plates as soon as possible 
after steam is out of boiler, that boiler may cool inside suf- 
ficiently for examination ; also keep all doors shul about boil- 
ers and settings, except the furnace and ash-pit doors. Keep 
dampers open m pipes and chimneys. 

6. Have all ashes removed from under boilers, and fire sur- 
faces of shell and heads swept clean. 

7. Have spare packing ready for use on manhole and hand- 
hole plates, if the old packing is made useless in taking off or 
is burned. The boiler attendant is to take off and replace 
these plates. 

8. Keep all windows and doors to boiler room open, after 
fires are hauled, so that boilers and settings may cool as quickly 
as possible. 



Maxims and Instructions. i^i 

INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

9. Particular attention is called to Rule 5, respecting 
doors — which should be open and which closed — also arrange- 
ment of damper. The importance of cooling the inside cf the 
boiler by removal of manhole and handhole plates at the same 
time the outside is cooling, is in equalizing the process of con- 
traction. 

ISSUING CERTIFICATES. 

These conditions having been complied with, the boiler is 
thoroughly tested, and if it is deemed capable of doing the 
work required of it, a number by which it shall hereafter be 
known and designated is placed upon it in accordance with the 
city ordinance : Failure to comply with this provision is pun- 
ishable by a fine of %'lh. A certificate of inspection is then 
given to the owner, for which a fee of $2 is paid. 

This certificate sets forth that on the day named the boiler 
therein described was subject to a hydrostatic pressure of a cer- 
tain number of pounds to the square inch. The certificate tells 
where the boiler was built, its style or character and "now 
appears to be in good condition and safe to sustain a working 

pressure of to the square inch. The safety-valve has been 

set to said pressure. ^^ A duplicate of this certificate is posted 
in full view in the boiler-room. In case the boiler does not 
stand the test to which it is subject, it must be immdiately 
repaired and put in good working order before a certificate will 
be issued. 

THE HYDRAULIC TEST. 

The hydraulic test is a very convenient method of testing 
iJie tightness of the work in a new boiler, in conjunction with 
inspection to a greater or lesser degree, in the passing of new 
work. As a detector of leakages it has no rival, and its appli- 
cation enables faulty caulking to be made good before the 
boiler has left the works, and before a leak has time to enter on 
its insidious career of corrosion. The extent to which it en- 
ables the soundness and quality of the work to be ascertained 
is another matter, and depends on several conditions. It will 
be evident that if the test be applied with this object to a new 
boiler, the pressure should range to some point in excess of the 



IJ2 Maxims and Instructions, 

INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

working load if such a test is to be of any practical value. 
What the excess should be so as to remain within safe limits 
cannot be stated without regard being paid to the factor of 
safety adopted in the structure. 

In addition to the advantage which the hydraulic test affords 
as a means of proving the tightness of the riveted seams and 
work generally, it is also of frequent assistance in determining, 
the sufficiency of the staying of flat surfaces, especially when of 
indeterminate shape, or when the stresses thrown upon them 
by the peculiar construction of the boiler are of uncertain mag- 
nitude. For the hydraulic test, however, to be of any real 
value in the special cases to which we refer, it is essential that 
it should be conducted by an expert, and the application of the 
pressure accompanied by careful gaugings, so as to enable the 
amount of bulging and permanent set to be ascertained. With- 
out such readings the application of the test in such cases is 
worthless, and may be delusive. Indeed, the careful gauging 
of a boiler as a record of its behavior should be a condition of 
every test, and is a duty requiring for its adequate performance 
a skilled inspector. 

The duty of inspecting a new boiler or witnessing the hy- 
draulic test properly belongs to one of the regular inspecting 
companies, who have men in their employ specially trained for 
the performance of such work. The advantage accruing from 
such a course is well worth the fee charged for the service, and 
secures a searching inspection of the workmanship, which fre- 
quently brings to light defects and oversights that a mere pump- 
ing-up of the boiler would never reveal. Such a proceeding 
in fact, can only prove that the boiler is water-tight, and a 
boiler may be tight under test although the workmanship is of 
the poorest character. Besides, it is well to bear in mind that 
the tightness of a boiler under test is no guarantee of its tight- 
ness after it is got to work. In a word, as far as new boilers 
are concerned, the application of hydraulic pressure unaccom- 
panied by careful inspection and gaugings may be almost worth- 
less, while with these additions it may be extremely valuable, 
especially in the case of boilers of peculiar shape, and is a pre- 
caution that should not be neglected. 



Maxims and Instructions, ijj 



ENGINEEES' EXAMINATIONS. 

Keeping in mind the fact that if there were no steam-hoilers 
there would he no examinations and no public necessity for 
licenses, these "points^' are added. 

Examinations are trying periods with all engineers, as the 
best are liable to fail in their answers from a nervous dread of 
the ordeal, but the granting of the document is very largely 
influenced by the personal experience of the candidate in the 
practical duties of the engine and boiler-room, which must be 
stated and certified to by the evidence of others. 

A general knoivledge of the subject of steam engineering is the 
first requisite to success, A few sample questions are here given 
to show the ordinary course pursued by examiners to determine 
the fitness of applicants : 

How long have you been employed as an engineer, and where? Are 
you a mechanic? Where did you learn your trade? Give some idea 
of the extent of your experience as an engineer? What kind of boil- 
ers have you had charge of ? Describe a horizontal tubular boiler. 
Describe a locomotive style boiler. Describe a vertical style boiler. 
Describe a sectional water tube boiler. How thick is the iron in the 
shell of your boiler? How thick should it be in the shell of your 
boiler? How thick are the heads in your boiler? How thick should 
they be in your boiler? How are the heads fastened to the shell? 
What is the best way to put heads in a boiler? How is the shell riv- 
eted? What size rivets are used? What distance apart are they? 
How should the shell be riveted? Why do they double rivet some 
seams? What ones are best double riveted? How is a horizontal 
boiler braced? How is a locomotive boiler braced? What is the size 
of and forms of braces generally used? What is the size of your boiler 
or boilers, length and diameter? How many have you in charge? 
Name the horse power. How many tubes are in the boiler? What 
size are they, and how thick? How long are they? How are they 
secured? What is the difference between a socket and a stay bolt? 
What is the tensile strength of Boiler Iron? What is the tensile 
strength of Boiler Steel? What is mild steel? What is CH No. 1 
iron? What is Flange Iron? What is Hot Short and Cold Short 
Iron? What is the common dimensions of a Man Hole? What is it 
for? What are Hand Holes for? Do you open them often? How 
often? What are Crown Bars and where are they used? How is a 
Boiler Caulked? What is a Drift Pin? 



134 



Maxims and Instructions. 



MECHANICAL STOKERS. 

In the back counties of England for many generations before 
the steam engine was evolved from the brains of Trevethick, 
Watt and Stephenson, the word *'stoke'' was used, meaning to 
''stir the fire/' The word was derived from an ancient word, 
stoke, meaning a stick, stock or post. 

To-day there are very many men who are called ''^stokers/' 
employed principally on locomotive engines, steam vessels, etc., 
and then there is the *'stoke hole,'' so-called, in which they do 
their work. 




But, now comes the ' 'mechanical stoker,'* which is well 
named, as its office is to feed and ''stir the fire'' by a machine, 
thus relieving the fireman from much excessively hard toil and 
allowing the time and energy thus saved to be more profitably 
used elsewhere. The figure shows a view of the American 
Stoker w^nich is a device of the most advanced type. 

The principal parts of the machine are: 1, the Hopper, 
which may be filled either by hand shoveling or by elevating 
and convening machinery; 2, the Conveyor Screw, which 
forces the coal, or indeed, any description of fuel, forward to 
the 3, Magazine, shown in the figure to the left; 4, a Driving 
Mechanism, which is a steam motor arranged conveniently in 
front of the hopper; 5, the Retort, so called from its being the 
place (above the conveyor) where the coal is distilled into gas. 

Note, — An illustrated printed description of this machine is issued 
and sent free ni)on application by the makers, The American Stoker 
Co., Washington Life Building, Cor. Broadway and Liberty St., New 
York. 



Maxims and Instructions. ij§ 



MECHANICAL STOKERS. 

The rate of feeding coal is controlled by the speed, of the 
motor, this being effected by the simple means of throttling 
the steam in the supply pipe to the motor. The shields cover- 
ing the motor effectually protect the mechanism from dirt and 
dust. The motor has a simple reciprocating piston ; its piston 
rod carries a crosshead, which, by means of suitable connect- 
ing links, operates a rocker arm having a pawl mechanism, 
which in turn actuates the ratchet wheel attached to the con- 
veyor shaft. The stoker is thus entirely self-contained and 
complete in itself. 

A screw conveyor or worm is located in the conveyor pipe 
and extends the entire length of the magazine. Immediately 
beneath the conveyor pipe is located the wind-box, having an 
opening beneath the hopper. 

At this point is connected the piping for the air supply, fur- 
nished at low pressure by a volume blower. The other end of 
the wind-box opens into the air space between the magazine 
and outer casing. The upper edge of the magazine is sur- 
rounded by tuyeres, or air blocks, these being provided with 
openings for the discharge of air, inwardly and outwardly. 

The stoker rests on the front and rear bearing bars ; the 
space between the sides of the stoker and side walls is filled 
with iron plates, termed "dead grates." Steam is carried to 
the motor by a f inch steam pipe. The exhaust steam from 
the motor is discharged into the ash pit. 

In operation the coal is fed into the hopper, carried by the 
conveyor into the magazine, which it fills, " overflows '^ on both 
sides, and spreads upon the sides of the grates. The coal is 
fed slowly and continuously, and, approaching the fire in its 
upward course, it is slowly roasted and coked, and the gases 
released from it are taken up by the fresh air entering through 
the tuyeres, which explodes these gases and delivers the coal as 
coke on the grates above. The continuous feeding gives a 
breathing motion to this coke bed, thus keeping it open and 
free for the circulation of air. 

It will be noted that in this machine the fuel is introduced 
from the bottom of the bed of fuel, technically speaking, upon 
the principle of '' underfeeding. '^ 



Ij6 Maxims and Instructions, 

CHEMICAL TERMS 

AKD EXPLANATIOlirS KELATING TO FEED WATEES. 

Chemistry is a science which investigates the composition 
and properties of material substances. 

Nature is composed of elementary elements ; knowledge of 
these bodies, of their mutual combinations, of the forces by 
which these combinations are brought about, and the laws in 
accordance with which these forces act, constitute chemistry, 
and the chemistry of steam engineering largely deals with the 
foreign bodies contained in the feed water of steam boilers. 

Element, In general, the word element is applied to any 
substance which has as yet never been decomposed into con- 
stituents or transmuted to any other substance, and which 
differs in some essential property from every other known body. 
The term simple or nndecomposed substance is of ted used 
synonymously with element. 

There are about 70 simple elements, three-quarters of which 
are to be met with only in minute quantities and are called rare 
elements. Copper, silver, gold, iron, and sulphur are simple 
elements — the metal irridium, for example, is a rare element — 
it is the metal which tips the ends of gold pens — it is heavier 
than gold and much more valuable. Probably there are not 
two tons of it in existence. 

A He-agent is a chemical used to investigate the qualities 
of some other chemical — example, hydrochloric acid is a 
re-agent in finding carbonic acid in limestone, or carbonate of 
lime, which when treated by it will give up its free carbonic 
acid gas, which is the same as the gas in soda water. 

Ati Oxide is any element, such as iron, aluminium, lime, 
magnesia, etc., combined with oxygen. To be an oxide it 
must pass through the state of oxidization. Iron after it is 
rusted is the oxide of iron, etc. 

A Carbonate is an element, such as iron, sodium, etc., 
which forms a union with carbonic acid — the latter is a mixture 
of carbon and oxygen in the proportion of 1 part of carbon to 
2 of oxygen. Carbonic acid, as is well known, does not support 
combustion and is one of the gases which come from perfect 



Maxims and Instructions. ijj 

CHEMICAL TERMS RELATING TO FEED WATER, 
combustion. This acid, or what may be better termed a gas, is 
pleDtifully distributed by nature and is found principally com- 
bined with lime and magnesia, and in this state (^. e., carbonate 
of lime and carbonate of magnesia) is one of the worst enemies 
to a boiler. 

Ati Acid is a liquid which contains both hydrogen and 
oxygen combined with some simple element such as chlorine, 
sulphur, etc. It will always turn blue litmus red, and has 
that peculiar taste known as acidity ; acids range in their 
power from the corrosive oil of vitriol to the pleasant picric 
acid which gives its flavor to fruits. 

Allzalles are the opposite to an acid ; they are principally 
potash, soda and ammonia — these combined with carbonic acid 
form carbonates. Sal-soda is carbonate of soda. 

A Chloride is an element combined with hydro chloric 
acid — common salt is a good example of a chloride — being 
sodium united with the element chlorine, which is the basis of 
hydro chloric acid. Chlorides are not abundant in nature but 
all waters contain traces of them more or less and they are not 
particularly dangerous to a boiler. 

Sulphates are formed by the action of sulphuric acid 
(commercially known as the oil of vitriol) upon an element, 
such as sodium, magnesia, etc. The union of sodium and sul- 
phuric acid is the well-known glauber salts — this is nothing 
more than sulphate of soda ; sulphate of lime h notliing more 
than gypsum. Sulphates are dangerous to boilers, if in large 
quantities should they give up their free acid — the action of the 
latter being to corrode the metal. 

Silica is the gritty part of sand — it is also the basis of all 
fibrous vegetable matter — a familiar example ot this is the ash 
which shows in packing, vv'hich has been burnt by the heat in 
steam ; by a peculiar chemical treatment silica has been made 
into soluble glass — a liquid. G5 per cent, of the earth's crust is 
composed of silica — it is the principal part of rock — pure white 
sand is silica itself — it is composed of an element called silicum 
combined with the oxygen of the air. Owing to its abundance 
in nature and its peculiar solubility it is found largely in all 
waters that come from the earth and is present in all boiler scale. 



Ij8 Maxims and Instructions, 

CHEMICAL TERMS RELATING TO FEED WATER. 

In water analysis the term insoluhle matter, is silica. This 
is one of the least dangerous of all the impurities that are in 
feed water. 

M.af/nesia is a fine, light, white powder, having neither 
taste nor smell, almost insoluble in boiling, but less so in cold 
water. Magnesia as found in feed water exists in two states, 
oxide and a carbonate, when in the latter form and free from 
the traces of iron, tends to give the yellow coloring matter to 
scale — in E. R. work, yellow scale is called magnesia scale. 

Carbonate of Magnesia is somewhat more soluble in 
cold than in hot water, but still requires to dissolve it 9,000 
parts of the latter and 2,493 of former. 

Magnesia, in combination with silica, enters largely into the 
composition of many rocks and minerals, such as soapstone, 
asbestos, etc. 

Lime^ whose chemical name is calcium, is a white alkaline 
earthy powder obtained from the native carbonates of lime, such 
as the different caicerous stones and sea shells, by driving off 
the carbonic acid in the process of calcination or burning. 

Lime is procured on a large scale by burning the stone in 
furnaces called kilns, either mixed with the fuel or exposed to 
the heated air and flames that proceed from side fires through 
the central cavity of the furnace in which the stones are col- 
lected. 

The calcined stones may retain their original form or crum- 
ble in part to powder ; if protected from air and moisture they 
can afterwards be preserved without change. 

Soda is a grayish white solid, fusing at a red heat, volatile 
with difficulty, and having an intense affinity for water, with 
which it combines with great evolution of heat. 

The only reagent which is available for distinguishing its 
salts from those of the oth^r alkalies is a solution of antimo- 
niate of potash, which gives a white precipitate even in diluted 
solutions. 

Sodium is the metallic base of soda. It is silver white with 
a high lustre ; crystallizes in cubes ; of the consistence of wax 
at ordinary temperatures, and completely liquid at 194°, and 



Maxims and Instructions, t^g 

CHEMICAL TERMS RELATING TO PEED WATER. 

volatilizes at a bright red heat. It is very generally diffused 
throughout nature though apparently somewhat less abun- 
dantly than potassium in the 3olid crust of the globe. 

Salty the chloride of sodium, a natural compound of one 
atom of chloride and one of sodium. It occurs as a rock inter- 
stratified with marl, and sandstones, and gypsum, and as an 
element of salt springs, sea water, and salt water lakes. 

The proportions of its elements are 60.4 per cent, of chlorine 
and 39.6 per cent, of sodium. 

In salt made of sea water the salts of magnesia with a little 
sulphate of lime are the principal impurities. 

The above mentioned chemical substances can be classified 
into two distinct classes, i, e.y incrusting and non-incrusting. 

Of the incrusting salts, carbonate of magnesia is the most 
objectionable, and any feed water that contains a dozen grains 
per gallon of magnesia can be expected to have a most injurious 
effect on the boiler, causing corrosion and pitting. Carbonate 
of lime, while not as bad as the magnesia carbonate, yet has a 
very destructive action on a boiler and 20 grains per gallon of 
this iS considered bad water. All silicates, oxides of iron, and 
aluminium, and sulphate of lime are also incrusting. The 
non-incrusting substances are three, viz., chloride of sodium 
(common salt), and sulphate and carbonate of soda. 

Note. 

In view of the increasing importance laid upon a knowledge 
of the chemical formation of feed water, these chapters of 
Chemical Terms and Analysis of Feed Waters are given to 
indicate the direction m which the advanced engineer must push 
his inquiries. There are more millions of treasure to be made 
by properly '' treating '' the water which enters the steam gen- 
erators of the world than can be extracted from its gold mines. 

An important ** point " is to make sure, before adopting any 
permanent system for purifying the waters of a steam plant, 
that it is always the same in its ingredients, t. e,y that the im- 
puiities contaiBed in the water are the same at all times. 



i^fO Maxims and Instructions. 



ANALYSIS OF FEED WATER. 

In response to a generous offer made by a leading engineering 
journal, the following compositions of feed water were ascer- 
tained and published. The *^ Directions*' show how the water 
was forwarded, and the tables, the result of careful examination, 
of samples sent from widt'ly separated sections of the country. 

Directions. 

1. Get a clean gallon Jug or bottle and a new cork (or, at all 
events, a thoroughly clean one). 

2. Wash out the vessel two or three times with the same 
water that is going to be sent in it. This is to make sure that 
the sample may not be contaminated with any ** foreign'' 
ingredient. 

3. Tie the cork, after the bottle is filled with the water, with 
a strong string or wire. Pack the bottle so secure, with hay or 
straw, sawdust, or newspapers, that it may not knock itself to 
pieces against the sides of the box. 

FROM ARGOS, IND. 

Grains per 
Gallon. 

Silica 1.1096 

Oxides of iron and aluminium „ .1753 

Carbonate of lime 11.9010 

Carbonate of magnesia 5.4597 

Carbonate of soda 1. 1334 

Chloride of sodium 0715 

Total solids 19.8494 

FROM SIOUX FALLS, S. D. 

Grains per 
Gallon. 

Silica 8293 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 2453 

Carbonate of lime 9 0699 

Carbonate of magnesia 5.4376 

Chloride of sodium 1.7173 

Sulphate of sodium 4. 5345 

Sulphate of lime 2. 6976 

Total solids .86. 0936 



Maxims and Instrucitons, i^fr 



ANALYSIS OF FEED WATER. 

FROM LITCHFIELD, ILL, Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica o 4711 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 7475 

Carbonate of lime. , . .3800 

Carbonate of magnesia 2 . 2911 

Chloride of sodium 8.7543 

Sulphate of soda 16. 0329 

Sulphate of lime , 2.8168 



Total solids 31.4835 

FROM CHELSEA, MASS. Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica 1168 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 6540 

Carbonate of lime 34.5260 

Carbonate of magnesia 22.8470 

Chloride of sodium 63 . 2041 

Sulphate of soda „ 28.4711 

Carbonate of soda 32. 2321 



Total solids 182 . 0511 

FROM MEMPHIS, TENN. Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica.. o 8292 

Oxides of iron and aluminium „ 4789 

Carbonate of lime 1 .8337 

Carbonate of magnesia 9956 

Carbonate of soda 1 . 9792 



Total solids 6. 1166 

FROM PEKIN, ILL. Grains per 

Gallons. 

Silica 1.0628 

Oxides of iron and aluminium Trace 

Carbonate of lime 10 . 0915 

Carbonate of magnesia 5 8224 

Chloride of soda o Trace 

Sulphate of soda 1 . 2456 



Total solids 18.6471 

FROM TIFFIN, OHIO. Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica 5256 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 2336 

Carbonate of lime 12 , 6144 

Carbonate of magnesia 10 . 2652 

Carbonate of soda 2 . 4137 

Sulphate of soda 6.8296 

Chloride of sodium 1 . 0484 



Total solids 33.9395 



/^ Maxims and Instruchans. 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STEAM 

BOILERS. 

No more perplexing question presents itself to the engineer 
and steam user than the one to be inferred from the above 
heading. Enormous losses of money, danger to life and 
property and the loss of position and the reputation of the 
engineer are involved m it. How to avoid these actual evils is 
of the first importance in steam economy. The subject at first 
sight seems to the average student a difficult one to master, but 
like all other matters pertaining to mechanics, investigation 
that IS backed with reason, Avill show that much that appears 
obscure is really very plain indeed ; this is because nature, even 
down to the sediment remaining in a boiler after the conver- 
sion of water into steam, operates in its formation with infinite 
exactness and along well known lines. 

Question. — What is corrosion ? 

Ansv/er. — Corrosion is pimply ^u sting or the wasting away of 
the surfaces of metals, for particulars of which seo page 12^' 

Question. — What is incrustation ? 

Answer. — Incrustation means simply a coating over. 

Water, on becoming steam, is separated from the impurities 

which it may have contained, and these form sediment and 

incrustation. 

Boilers corrode on the outside as well as within, and to a 
great extent unless carefully cleaned and painted ; but it is the 
damage caused by **hard" and acidulated water within the 
boiler that is to be principally guarded against. 

An extreme example of incrustation has been described in 
that of a locomotive type of a stationary boiler. Its dimensions 
were : seventy-two inches in diameter, twenty-two feet long, 
with 153 three-inch tubes ; shell, three-eighths ; head, three- 
eighths, and made of iron. The scale against the back head 
was nearly two inches thick and completely filled the space 
between the tubes, so that circulation was impossible, the only 
wonder being that the boiler did not give out sooner than it 
imallj did. The scale was even with the top row of tubes, the 



Maxims and Instructions. i^j 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STEAM BOILERS, 
only part of the boiler generating steam being the fire box and 
the upper row of tubes, the others acting simply as smoke con- 
duits. There was certainly a great loss of fuel, quite fifty per 
cent. Had it been a horizontal boiler it would have burned 
out before the scale became so heavy. 

In the above instance, the loss in fuel is estimated at one- 
half. Careful experiment has proved an average loss of fuel 
as follows : 

1-16 inch of scale causes a loss of 13 per cent, of fuel. 
1^ « €€ «* « 33 « « 

1-2 " ** ** ** 60 ** " 

It must be remembered that dry steam, as it is used through 
the engine or for other purposes, carries away none of the 
impurities which pass with the water into the boiler; henc^., 
in a battery of boilers burning, say, 20 tons of coal per day and 
evaporating 10 lbs. of water to a pound of coal, there is a body 
of water going through them every day. of 200 tons. Multiply 
this by 300 days for a year =60, 000 tons, and it will be seen 
how very great is the problem of keeping the interior of the 
boilers free from scale and deposit. 

Chemically pure water is that which has no impurities, and 
may be described as colorless, tasteless, without smell, trans- 
parent, and in a very slight degree compressible, and, were a 
quantity evaporated from a perfectly clean vessel, there would 
be no solid matter remaining. 

But, strangely, investigation has proved that water of this 
purity rapidly corrodes iron, and attacks even pure iron and 
steel more readily than **hard'^ water does, and sometimes 
gives a great deal of trouble where the metal is not homogene- 
ous. Marine boilers would be rapidly ruined by pure distilled 
water if not previously ^* scaled^' about 1-32 of an inch. 

Water is formed by the union of two gases — oxygen and 
hydrogen. These two are simple bodies, formed by the Creator 
in the beginning, which are found in combination in thousands 
of different forms. Both when alone are invisible. Take one 
volume of oxygen and mix it with two volumes of hydrogen 
and they will chemically unite and form water. This is by 



7^^ Maxims and Instructzons, 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

measure. By iveight water is composed of 88.9 of oxygen 
to 11.1 of hvdrogen = 100 parts. See pages 229, 230 for 
further information. 

It is an important point to remember that when water is 
expanded about 1,700 times into steam, it is simply expanded 
water, as ice is hardened water, i. e., in expanding into steam 
the two constituent gases do not separate. Hence, in dealing 
with the impurities inside the boiler, it is to be observed that 
in no sense do they change the essential nature of water itself. 
The impurities are simply/orciy/z bodies, which have no legiti- 
mate place in the boiler, and are to be expelled as dangerous 
foes. As a general ])rinciple, it may be stated that it is more 
profitable to soften and filter the water used in boilers than to 
trust to blowing out or dissolving the sediment and scale that 
will be otherwise formed, for observations show that *^anti- 
incrustators" containing organic matter help rather than 
hinder incrustations, and are therefore to be avoided. For the 
remedy of foul water there are numerous contrivances to pre- 
vent it from entering the boiler, which is far better than trying 
to extract the sediment after it is there, though there are many 
ingenious methods for doing that also, some of which will be 
detailed hereafter. 

PEELIMINAKY PRECIPITATION OF WATER. 

A good method of avoiding incrustations in steam boilers is 
evidently a preliminary purification of the feed-water, provided 
it can be done by mtaas sufficiently simple. This is a problem 
which it is claimed has been solved by M. Dehne of Halle, by 
means of an arrangement which we will herewith describe. 
The fresh water, which is taken up by a feed pump, is sent 
into a heater where it is raised to a temperature that will be 
favorable to chemical reaction. It then passes into a mixer 
where it encounters certain reacting agents which have been 
pumped in there by a pump of special design. These reacting 
agents are composed of a mixture of carbonate of soda and of 
caustic soda, the carbonate of soda serving to precipitate the 
sulphate of lime contained in the feed water, wliile the caustic 



Maxims and Instructions. JfS 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STEAM BOILERS 

soda precipitates the carbonate of lime and tlie magnesia. ' f he 
relative dimensions between the special pump and the ' (:!ed 
pump are calculated in such a way that the proportions of ar- 
bonate of soda and caustic soda in the mixture have always a 
certain relation to the amount of lime and magnesia to be pre- 
cipitated. The water of the mixture is frequently very much 
disturbed by the precipitations which are formed, and passes 
into a filter where all the matters that are held in suspension 
are retained. It then goes into the boiler. In cases where the 
feed-water is taken from a tank, the heater, the mixer, and filter 
are put in the suction pipe of the feed pump, but if, as often 
happens, the water is already under pressure and will pass 
directly through the three, the feed pump will take the water 
directly from the filter and pump it directly into the boiler. 

A PKECIPITATOR FOR SEA WATER. 

It is quite possible to prepare sea water in such a way as to 
practically prevent any serious deposit forming from it. 

The process employed is to add to the sea water a known 
quantity of precipitator powder consisting chiefly of soda ash, 
and having done this in a closed vessel, t® heat the mixture by 
blowing into it waste steam, until a pressure of from 5lbs. to 
lOlbs. is created ; under these circumstances practically all the 
magnesium and calcium salts separate from the water and are 
easily got rid of by filtering it under pressure into the hot-well. 

A precipitator 6 ft. 4 in. high and 3 ft. in diameter, holds a 
ton of water, and the time taken, from the first running the 
sea water in, to its delivery into the hot-well, need not exceed 
1 hour and 15 minutes, so that in practice, giving plenty of 
time between the makes, it would be perfectly easy to prepare 
8 to 12 tons in the 24 hours with a small precipitator of the 
size named. The prepared water has a density of l-32nd, and 
may with safety be evaporated until its density is 5-32nds, the 
salts present not crystalizing out until a density of from 6-32nds 
to 7-32nds is reached. 

In preparing sea water in the way proposed, every precau- 
tion must be taken to add slightly less of the precipitant than 
is necessary to entirely throw down the calcium and magnesium 



1^6 Maxims and Instructions. 

— - ■■ll_. -J.-_M_U \ 

A PRECIPITATOR FOR SEA WATER. 
salts, as it is manifestly impossible in practice to guard against 
small quantities of sea water finding way into the boiler either 
from leaky condensers or else being fed in by the engineer 
during some emergency, and if under these conditions any 
excess of the precipitant were present in the boiler, a bulky 
precipitate would be thrown down and cause trouble, although 
it would not bind into a solid scalCc 

Briefly recapitulated the means which are best adapted for 
preventing the formation of the dangerous organic and oily 
deposits considered are : 

I. Filtration of condensed water through a coke column. 

II. Free use of the scum cocks. 

III. The use of water of considerable density rather than 
of fresh water. 

IV. The use of pure mineral oil lubricants in the smallest 
possible quantity. 

SCALE DEPOSITED IN MARINE BOILERS. 

The analysis given below may be looked upon as typical of 
the incrustation formed by fresh water, brackish water and sea 
water respectively in marine boilers : 

Constituent River. Brackish. Sea. 

Calcic carbonate 75.85 43.65 0.97 

" sulphate 8.68 84.78 85.53 

Magnesic hydrate 2.56 4.34 8.39 

Sodic chloride 0.45 0.56 2.79 

Silica 7.66 7.53 1.10 

Oxides of iron and alumina 2.96 8.44 0.82 

Organic matter 8.64 1.55 trace 

Moisture 8.20 4.16 5.90 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

From this it is evident we may look upon the incrustation 
from fresh water as consisting of impure calcic carbonate, 
whilst that from sea water is impure calcic sulphate, the 
brackish water from the mouths of rivers yielding, as might be 
expected, an incrustation in which both these compounds are 
present in nearly equal quantities. 

The importance of these differences in the deposit formed is 
very great, as it enables the shipowner to arrive at the conclu- 
sion as to the treatment that the boilers have received during 
the voyage, by examination and analysis of the scale that those 



Maxims and Instructiant, i^ 

SCALE DEPOSITED IN MARINE BOILERS, 
boilers contain. Taking, for instance, the case of a ship 
which uses fresh water both for filling and make up, it is man- 
ifest that on her return to port the scale should be very slight 
and should consist mainly of calcic carbonate, whilst if the 
scale exceeds 1-16 in., and shows a preponderance of calcic 
sulphate, it is manifest that such scale could only have been 
formed by sea water, either leaking in from faulty condensers 
or being deliberately fed into the boilers. 

With the introduction of high pressure steam a new and 
dangerous form of deposit has added to the trouble of the ma- 
rine engineer ; having entered the boiler, the minute globules 
of oil, if in great quantity, coalesce to form an oily scum 
on the surface of the water, or if present in smaller quantities, 
remain as separate drops ; but show no tendency to sink, as 
they are lighter than water. 

Slowly, however, they come in contact with small particles 
of other solids separating from the water and sticking to them, 
they gradually coat the particles with a covering of oilj which 
in time enables the particles to cling together or to the surface? 
which they come in contact with. These solid particles oi 
calcic carbonate, calcic sulphate, etc., are heavier than the 
'water, and, as the oil becomes more and more loaded with 
them, a point is reached at which they have the same specific 
gravity as the water, and then the particles rise and fall with 
the convection currents which are going on in the water, and 
stick to any surface with which they come in contact, in this 
way depositing themselves, not as in common boiler incrusta- 
tion, where they are chiefly on the upper surfaces, bat quite as 
much on the under sides of the tubes as on top. 

The deposit so formed is a wonderful non-conductor of heat, 
and also from its oily surface tends to prevent intimate contact 
between itself and the water. On the crown of the furnaces 
this soon leads to overheating of the plates, and the deposit 
begins to decompose by heat, the lower layer m contact with 
the hot plates giving off various gases which blow the greasy 
layer, ordinarily only 1-64 inch in thickness, up to a spongy 
leathery mass often 1-3 inch thick, which, because of its poros- 



1^8 Maxims and Instructions* 

SCALE DEPOSITED IN MARINE BOILERS, 
ity is an even better non-conductor of heat than before, and 
the plate becomes heated to redness. 

"When water attains a temperature, as it does under increasing 
pressure, ranging from 175° to about 420° Fahr., all carbonates, 
sulphates and chlorides are deposited in the following order : 

First. Carbonate of lime at 176° and 248° Fahr. 

Second. Sulphate of lime at 248° and 420°. 

Third. Magnesia, or chlorides of magnesium, at 324° and 364°. 

It is to take advantage of this fact that mechanically arranged 
jets, sprinklers and long perforated pipes are introduced into 
the interior of the boiler ; these tend to scatter the depositing 
impurities and also to bring the feed water more quickly to the 
highest heat possible. 

With regard to the oxide of iron or iron salts in solution, 
these can best be treated with small quantities of lime. By 
adding re-agents, they set up chemical changes, which result 
in precipitation, which give the water a milky appearance ; 
they divide into particles, and ultimately settle, leaving the 
water pure and bright. The mechanical treatment on a limited 
scale would be easy, a settling tank sufficing ; but this becomes 
a different matter when large quantities have to be dealt with. 

ANALYSIS OF AVERAGE BOILER SCALE. 

Parts per 100 parts 
of deposit. 

Silica 043 parts. 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 044 

Carbonate of lime 80.780 

Carbonate of magnesia 51.733 

Sulphate of soda , , . Trace 

Chloride of sodium Trace 

Carbonate of soda 9.341 

Organic matter - . . . 8.060 



Total solids dOO. Parts 

The percentage only of each ingredient the scale is composed 
of is given, as it cannot be told how much water was evaporated 
to leave this amount of solid matter. 



Maxims and Instr2Lclions. izf.() 

A LOCOMOTIVE-BOILER COMPOUND. 

The lineis of a certain great K. R, traverse a country where 
the water is very hard and they are compelled to resort to some 
method of precipitating the lime that is held in solution. Af 
ter many tests and experiments they have made a compound 
and use it as follows : in a barrel of water of a capacity of fifty 
gallons they put 21 lbs. of carbonate of soda, or best white soda 
ash of commerce, and 35 lbs. of whit^ caustic soda. The cost, 
per gallon, is about 2^ cents. 

The compound is carried in this concentrated form, in calo- 
mine cans on the tender of each locomotive. A certain amount, 
according to the necessities of the case, is poured into the ten- 
der at the water tank at each filling. This amount is deter- 
mined by analysis, and varies all the way from two to fifteen 
pints to two thousand gallons of water. The precipitating 
power of this compound may be taken roughly at f of a pound 
of the carbonate of lime, or equivalent amount of other mate- 
rial, per pint of the compound. On their western lines where 
they are dealing with alkali waters and those containing sul- 
phates, the company use merely 60 pounds of soda ash to a 
barrel of water. When the water is pumped into the boiler the 
heat completes the precipitation and aggregation of the par- 
ticles, and this does away with all trouble of the tenders or in- 
jector tubes clogging up. 

The case is an interesting one to stationary engineers, because 
where the water is pumped into tlie boiler from tanks the same 
compound can be used, provided the water contains the proper 
constituents to be precipitated by it ; and where the water is 
taken from city water mains, it would be a simple matter to 
devise an apparatus to admit the compound to the feed pipes. 

*' Points^* Relatin^g to the Scaliitg of Steam Boilers. 

The peculiarity about the sulphate of lime is that the colder 
the water the more of it will he held in solution. Water of ordi- 
nary temperature may hold as high as 7 per cent, of lime sul- 
phate in solution, but when the temperature of the water is 
raised to the boiling point a portion of it is precipitated, leav- 
ing about .5 of one per cent, still in solution. Then as the 



i§0 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS EELATINO TO THE SCALING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

temperature of the water is raised, still more of the substance 
is precipitated and this continues until a guage pressure of 41 
pounds has been reached which gives a temperature of about 
200 degrees; at this point all the sulphate of lime has been 
precipitated. Many other scale forming substances act in a 
similar manner. This shows quite plainly that any tempera- 
ture tliac can be produced by the use of exhaust steam would 
not be sujBBcieut to cause the precipitation of all the substances 
which might be contained in the water. 

That boiler incrustations are the immediate causes of the 
majority of steam boiler explosions is no longer a doubtable 
question. 

Nearly all foreign matter held in solution in water, on first 
becoming separated by boiling, rises to the top in the form of 
tvhat is commonly called scum, in which condition much of it 
may be removed by the surface blow-off. If not removed, 
however, the heavier particles will be attracted to each other 
until they have become suflBciently dense to fall to the bottom, 
where they will be deposited in the form of scale, covering the 
whole internal surface of the boiler below the water line, with 
a more or less perfect non-conductor of heat. 

It is recorded that the engineer of the French ocean steamer 
St. Laurent omitted to remove a bar of zinc when repairing 
and cleaning out his boilers. On opening the boilers at the 
end of the voyage to his great surprise he found that the zinc 
had disappeared, but his boilers were entirely free from scale 
and the boiler plates not injured in the least. 

It has been recently determined by some German experi 
menters that sugar effects a strong action upon boilers. It has 
an acid reaction upon the iron which dissolves it with a disen- 
gagement of hydrogen. The amount of damage done increases 
with the amount of sugar in the water. These results are 
worthy of note in sugar refineries and places where sugar some- 
times finds its way into the boilers by means of the water 
supplied. The experimenters in question also find that zinc is 
strongly attacked by sugar ; copper, tin, lead and aluminiuro 
are not attacked. 



Maxims and InstrMctions, 75/ 



POINTS RELATING TO THE SCALING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

Two reasons, relating to incrustations, for not blowing out a 
boiler while under steam pressure may be given as follows : 
One is, that the foreign matter floating on top of the water 
will be deposited on the shell of the boiler as the water gradually 
subsides, and, second, the heated walls of the furnace will com- 
municate a sufficiently high temperature to the boiler to dry 
and flake the sediment that would otherwise remain in the 
boiler in the shape of m.^d, which could easily be washed out 
were it not for the baking process. 

Bark, such as is used by tanners, has an excellent effect on 
boiler incrustations. It may be used as follows: Throw into 
the tank or reservoir from which the boilers are fed a quantity 
of bark in the piece, in sufficient quantity to turn the wa' er to 
a light brown color. Repeat this operation every month at 
least, using only half the quantity after the first month. Add' 
a very small quantity of the muriate of ammonia, about one 
pound for every 2,000 gallons of water used. This will have 
the effect of softening as well as disintegrating the carbonate of 
lime and other impurities deposited by the action of evaporation. 

Note. — Care must be exercised in keeping the bark, as it 
becoaies broken up, from the pump valves and blow-off valves. 
This may be accomplished by throioing it into the reservoir 
confined in a sack. 

Among the best samples of boiler compounds ever sent to the 
laboratory for analysis was found to be composed of: 

Pounds 

Sal soda 40 

Catechu 5 

Sal ammoniac 5 

This solution was formerly sold at a good round figure, but 
since its nature became more generally known, it is not found 
in market, but is largely used, consumers putting it up in lots 
sufficient to last a year or so at a time. 

The above is strongly recommended by those who have used 
it, one pound of the mixture being added to each barrel of water 
used but after the scale is once thoroughly removed from the 



1^2 Maxims and Instructions. 

POINTS RELATING TO THE SCALING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

boiler, the use of sal soda alone is all that is necessary. By the 
use of ten pounds per week a boiler 26 feet long and 40 inches 
in diameter in one of the iron mills of New Albany, Ind., has 
been kept clean of scale equal to a new boiler. 

There are other evils sometimes inherent in hard waters over 
and above the mere production of a crust. Some waters con- 
tain a great deal of soluble magnesia salts, together with com- 
mon salt. When this is the case ':l.ere is a great chance of 
corrosion, for the former is acted on by steam at high pressure 
in such a way that muriatic acid fumes are produced, which 
seriously corrodes the boiler, and, what is far worse, passes 
with the steam into the engine, and produces corrosion in the 
cylinders and other delicate fittings into contact with which 
the steam passes. All this can, however, be obviated by the 
removal of the magnesia from the water. 

There has not been, and never can be, made a mechanical 
device which will precipitate all the ingredients contained in a 
water taken from a natural source^of supply, and if it were 
possible to do so it would be the most ruinous thing one could 
do for the boilers, as water is the greatest solvent known to chem- 
istry, and its nature is to hold m solution and be impregnated 
with the different elements it comes in contact with, to a cer- 
tain per cent., and if its lime, magnesia, and the mineral salts 
are taken away, and the pure water is pumped into the boilers, 
it will take up the iron, causing pitting and grooving of the 
boilers. It is better to let nature take its course, to a certain 
extent, and neutralize what little mineral deposit forms in the 
boilers with as small an amount of vegetable matter as possible. 

It is well to note that different waters require different treat- 
ment ; what will be of benefit in one instance will be of no 
value whatever in a different water, many of the '' compounds " 
sold to prevent and remove scale will certainly destroy a boiler 
if they are used persistently, because they are composed of the 
exact opposite chemicals which should be used ; as an example 
it IS stated that at one establishment one thousand dollars were 
expended annually for a mixture which it is said resulted in 
the reduction of the life and usefulness of the boilers of 50 
per cent. 



Maxims and Instructions. i^j 

ENGINEERS' TESTS 

FOR IMPURITIES I:N" FEED WATER. 

Much expense can be saved in fuel and boiler repairs by a 
little preliminary expenditure of money in securing a supply of 
good water f<.T the steam boilers of a new establishment. Well 
water is nearly always inferior to the running water of streams; 
water from mines is especially hurtful, containing, as they do, 
large quantities of free sulphuric acid. Wells along the sea 
shore or on the banks of rivers afPected by the tides, are likely 
to be saturated with chloride of magnesium. It is in deter- 
mining these points that these ready tests of feed water are 
most useful. 

A thorough and really scientific analysis of feed water is a 
costly and tedious process, but a simple and 'perhaps swfficienily 
accurate test may be made as follows : take a large (or tall) 
clear glass vessel and fill it with the water to be tested ; add a 
few drops of water of ammonia, until the water is distinctly 
alkaline ; next add a little phosphate of soda ; the action of 
this is to change the lime, magnesia, etc., into phosphates, in 
which form they are deposited in the bottom of the glass. The 
amount of the matter thus collected gives a crude idea of the 
relative quality of sediment and scale-making material in the 
water. 

Water taming hliie litmus paper red, before boiling, con- 
tains an acid, and if the blue color can be restored by heating^ 
the water contains carbonic acid. Litmus paper is sold by 
druggists. 

If the water has a foul odor, giving a black precipitate with 
acetate of lead, it is sulphurous. 

An experiment may be tried by dissolving common white or 
other pure soap in a glass of water, and then stirring into the 
glasses of water to be tested a few teaspoon sful of the solution ; 
the matter which will be deposited will show the comparative 
amount of the scale-making material contained in the feed 
water. 



1^4- Maxims and Instructions, 

ENGINEERS' TESTS FOR IMPURITIES IN FEED WATER. 

In order to ascertain the proportion of soda to the feed water 
the following method is recommended : 

1. Add iVth part of an ounce of the soda to a gallon of the 
feed water and hoil it. 2. When the sediment thrown down 
by the boiling has settled to the bottom of the kettle, pour the 
clear water off, and 3, add ^ drachm of soda. Now, if the water 
remains clear, the soda, which was first put in, has removed 
the lime, but if it becomes muddy, the second addition of soda 
is necessary. 

In this way a sufficiently accurate estimate of the quantity of 
soda required to eliminate the impurities of the feed water can 
be made and the due proportion added to the feed water. 

By exercising a little judgment, the use of pure chemicals, 
with well cleaned vessels, test tubes, etc., the following re- 
agents will determine the character of the most important 
elements which injure the iron surfaces of a steam boiler. 

Carbonic acid is indicated by byrata water. 
Sulphates are indicated by chloride of barium. 
Chlorides are indicated by nitrate of silver. 
Lime salts are indicated by oxalate of ammonia. 
Organic matter is indicated by chloride of mercury. 

The ''base'' of the better class of the various patented boiler 
compounds is tannin (whence tannic acid) and some form of 
alkali, and if the compounds were to be deprived of these two 
elements they would be absolutely worthless. 

Where they contain, as some certainly do, sal-ammoniac, 
muriatic, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, they cannot but 
act as boiler destroying agents. 

Tannin or tannic acid is the principal ingredient used in 
preparing leather. It is found in a great variety of plants — 
sassafras root has it in large proportion, the gall nut and the 
bark of various trees, especially the oak produce it. 

It IS the presence of this acid that gives their only value to 
very many '^ compound s,'* tan bark, gum catechu (which 
sometimes contains one-half part of tannic acid), etc. The 



Maxims and Instructions, i^^ 

ENGINEERS' TESTS FOR IMPURITIES IN FEED WATER. 

acid seems to liave but little effect where large quantities of 
sulphate of lime are present, but in waters where carbonate of 
lime predominates its detersive qualities are more marked. 

The records of the Patent Office show that one boiler com- 
pound contains 23 per cent, of citechu, and others, 60,. 81, 5, 
respectively, by which may be inferred the large quantity of 
this agent, which has been sold in combination with other 
chemicals, principally soda. 

JS^OTE. 

While the product of water steeped in clean tan bark may be 
favorable in its action upon boiler incrustation, it has been 
found to he very unsafe, in practice, to use the ''tan liquor*' 
taJcen from the vats. The danger arises from the fact that 
sometimes during the process of tanning leather, the required 
acidity cannot be produced by natural fermentation when sul- 
phuric acid is added, in order to bring the liquor to its required 
strength — in due course, this corrosive substance acts injuri- 
ously on the boiler. 

USE OF PETROLEUM OIL IN BOILERS. 

The use of crude (unrefined) mineral oil in steam boilers is 
attended by risks caused by impurities and foreign substances 
mixed with it. These are likely to combine with the earthy 
matter in the water and tend to form instead of preventing 
scale ; the tar and wax contained in crude petroleum combine 
with the sediment in steam boilers, and the paste prevents the 
water from reaching and protecting the plates. This is true 
particularly in shell boilers which have flat surfaces over the 
firco Refined mineral oil has none of these disadvantages. 

Kerosene oil has all the advantages to be derived from the 
use of crude petroleum and the above objections quite re- 
moved. 

In one system of the application of steam the use of kerosene 
and petroleum cannot be recommended : that is when live 
uteam is used for cooking purposes, the odor from the oil will 
impregnate the meat and other products designed for food 
consumption. 



T^6 Maxims and Instructions, 



KEROSENE OIL IX BOILERS. 

Under certain conditions, and with care and judgment, the 
use of refined petroleum has been found to be of great advan- 
tage in removing and preventing scaling in steam boilers. 

There is no well authenticated case where a systematic, 
regular and uniform feed of pure kerosene oil to a steam boiler 
has failed to operate beneficially upon the scale formation. 

The best results are obtained by the use of the oil under the 
same arrangement that cylijider oil is fed to an engine. The 
kerosene is sometimes introduced through a one-fourth inch 
branch to the suction pipe of the fead pump, leading to the 
vessel containing the oil, so that any quantity, large or small, 
can be put into the boiler simultaneously with the usual feed. 
The drawback to this arrangement is that when the fe^-d water 
heater has to be cleaned, a gallon or more of the oil is often 
lost, which together with a very unpleasant odor, when used 
in this manner, tends to condemn its use. But ichen jnped he- 
tween the boiler and heater, these objections cease. We present 
an arrangement which is illustrated by cut on page 157. 

This is nothing more than a storage system with sight feed, 
by use of which the oil can be fed drop by drop as desired — for 
each drop of water entering the reservoir a drop of oil is forced 
down the small ^-in. pipe, up the glass tube and on into the 
boiler. 

In piping it is necessary to have the water or larger pipe 
(|- in. ) attached through the lower plug as shown in cut, and 
the oil as shown, going through the smaller or :i-in. pipe — 
i. e., the oil pipe must, under all circumstances, be the smaller 
of the two. 

In the figure is shown a piece of 6-in. gaspipe, about a foot 
in length, plugged at each end ; the top plug has one opening, 
for an inch nipple ^'a*' with top. This opening is to be used 
in filling the reservoir with oil. The bottom plug has two holes, 
one for the ^-inch water pipe, and the second for a small pet 
cock " B," to let the water out, whenever it is necessary to re- 
fill the tank with kerosene. The water gauge connection is 



Maxims and InsLruclions, 



^37 



H 
O 

o 
o 

O 
1—1 

Q 

o 

O 

I— I 

r" 

O 

W 

o 

I— I 
I 

Oi 




XE 



H 111 III II HI III I iTTTiiii ri I mm nil 







1^8 Maxims and Instructions, 

DEVICE FOR USING KEROSENE OIL. 
the ordinary, cheap brass fixture, with boxes, nipples, etc., 
used in boilers, with gasket of rubber bottom and top of the 
glass. The glass plainly exhibits the depth of water and oil in 
the reservoir as well as the feed of minute drops of oil as they 
speed on their beneficent mission softening the injurious scale. 
There are the usual 2 valves on the water glass ; by opening 
the lower one more or less, the amount of oil used can be regu- 
lated to a nicety. The valves can be used to entirely cut ofE 
the apparatus at any time desired. 

!N"oTE. — Should the end of the screw connection inside the 
holder which each one of these valves control, not be i inch, a 
reduced elbow should be used, as ^-in. pipe will give the best 
satisfaction when used as a stand pipe inside the reservoir. 

The quantity of oil to be fed to a boiler is very largely to be 
determined by experiment commencing with a minimum and 
increasing the amount as found necessary to keep down the 
scale formation. The use of 2 qts. of the oil per week has 
been found to be sufficient for a boiler 4 feet in diameter and 
12 feet long, and three quarts per week on boilers 5 feet in 
diameter. This quantity may be regarded as the smallest 
advisable to use and from that up to 1 to 2 gallons per diem in 
boilers, say of 125 horse power, when pushed to their capacity 
in evaporating water. 

The result of careful experiments justifies the use of kerosene, 
the scale being less than in four years' previous experience, 
and a large portion of the boiler showing the clean black steel, 
in as apparently good condition as when new. 

Despite the small quantity of kerosene used in the boilers in 
this case, the odor was perceptible by opening an air valve to 
any steam radiator in any of the buildings. When as much as 
a gallon per week was used, the odor was very strong, but with 
one half that amount it was hardly perceptible, and only to be 
noticed when an air valve had been open a long time. And 
since commencing to use the oil a much greater deposit of rust 
scales than usual has been found in the various steam traps in 
the buildings, indicating that the oil is also exerting a cleans- 
ing influence on the pipes of the whole system. 



Maxims and Instructions. i^g 

DEVICE FOR USING KEROSENE OIL. 

Note. — Provision must be made for the removal of the scale 
as it drops from the internal surfaces of the boiler, as at times 
many bushels of it have been deposited directly over the furnace; 
hence, if a boiler is known to be badly incrusted, the kerosene 
should not be put in the first time more than three days before 
it is intended to wash the boiler. 

Note 2. — The safety valve should be opened to allow the es- 
cape of the gas arising from the kerosene before cleaning out 
the boiler; where a lighted lamp or candle is used, as it must 
necessarily be — indeed this is a precaution which ought always 
to be observed in all cases, viz., properly to ventilate boilers, 
heaters, and tanks of all descriptions before entering them with 
lighted lamps and torches. While these gases are not likely to 
cause an explosion, they burn quite rapidly and should be 
promptly removed without giving opportunity for an accident. 

The accumulation of gas is not confined to the use of kero- 
sene oil for the prevention of scale in steam boilers, but is also 
found in flour mills, confectioners^ conduits for electric wires, 
brewers' vats, etc. So, with common sense precautions, no ex- 
tra risk is run in using kerosene oil in steam boilers. 

MECHANICAL BOILER CLEANERS. 

Ovnng to the fact (1) that nearly, if not quite all, the im- 
purities which exist in feed water are set free by a high tem- 
perature attained under pressure ; (2) that these impurities are 
left in the boiler by the constant use of the steam, there follows 
the result that the water remaining is more and more impreg- 
nated with the residuum composed of the foreign matters which 
(the water removed) constitutes mud, scale, etc. 

The custom has been and is now to regularly **blow off" one 
or two gauges of this water once or twice per day replacing it 
with fresh water of less density ; that this is a very imperfect 
method for removing the foreign matter is readily allowed, be- 
sides wasting absolutely all the units of heat contained in the 
v^ater blown off. 

Now, within the boiler while in use, under the operation 
of the fierce heat of the furnaces, are constant changes in the 



lOu Alaxzms and Inblruciions. 

MECHANICAL BOILER CLEANERS, 
position of the water caused by the boiling, by the withdrawal 
of the steam and by the constant effort of the hot water to rise 
and the cold water to fall. The water thus keeps in circulation 
everything within the boiler, including the sediment, except in 
'places where the ivater is from any cause without motion. In 
these quiet nooks there is a constant depositing of the elsewhere 
active foreign matters contained in the water, which deposits, 
in the form of mud and scale, left undisturbed, causes loss and 
danger. 

It is in taking advantage of these facts, and of the principles 
of the circulation ot hot and cold water, that mechanical boiler 
cleaners are brought into successful use. 

These devices for the stilling of the water and collection oi 
the sediment are made in various forms and all sizes and capaci- 
ties, and are located at the sides or back of the boiler setting 
and even on top of the boiler. There is a system where pipen 
in a coil are fixed in the sides of the furnace and exposed to its- 
greatest heat, and which, owing to their enlarged area, act as 
most efficient reservoirs. In all theso devices there is an upfiovu 
pipe connected with the lower and coolest water, ind a return 
pipe connecting with the top of the water where it is hottest. 
This arrangement assures a constant current which is more or 
less rapid according to the intensity of the fire and which keeps 
up as long as the firmg is done. Where this current passe? 
through the reservoir, the enlarged area and comparative quie+ 
is favorable for the deposit of the sediment and in practical ex 
perience it does deposit nearly all of it. The collection of the 
impurities is helped by o, funnel-shaped appliance placed at the 
opening of the upflow pipe, which, aided by the rapid flow of 
the hot water, carries the floating scum towards it into the 
reservoir. Attached to the reservoir is the blow-off pipe through 
which the deposited matter is removed as often as necessary. 

The use of these mechanical cleaners is readily understood : 
(1) they provide a place of accumulation for the sediment ; (2) 
they save the necessity of opening the boilers to remove by 
hand, the refuse of the boiler; (3) save fuel by avoiding the 
necessity of frequent blowing off one or two gauges of water, 
and (4) by the preventing the formation of scale with its 
attendant evils. 



Maxims and Instructions, 261 



SCUMMING APPARATUS. 

In addition to tlie bottom blow-out apparatus every boiler 
should be provided with means for blowing out water from the 
surface in order to remove the fine particles of foreign matter 
fluating there, which afterward settle and consolidate as scale 
on the heating surfaces. 

It consists, in its simplest form, of a pan, or a conical scoop. 




Fig. 70. 
near the surface of the water, but below it, connected with 
a pipe passing through the boiler-shell, on which is a cock, or 
valve, for regulating the escape of the water laden with the 
impurities deposited in the pan. There are patented apparatus 
for this purpose which are well designed and easily fitted to a 
boiler. 

The oflBce of the surface blow-off, illustrated in Fig. 70, is 
to remove the foreign matter which is precipitated from its 
solution in the water. 

A surface blow-off used occasionally will remove the greater 
portion of this scum and keep the boilers reasonably free from 
scale and mud. Where dirty or muddy water is fed into the 
boilers the surface blow-off is one of the cheapest and most 
efficient means for keeping the boiler clean. The efficiency of 
the surface blow-off is not so great as that of some of the me- 
chanical boiler-cleaners, as by their use it is not required that 
any hot water shall be wasted, and this is the greatest objec- 
tion to the surface blow-off, as in the hands of some people a 
large amount of boiling water is wasted each time it is used. 
But both of these arrangements are virtually skimmers, as they 
remove the precipitated mineral and vegetable matter from the 
surface of the water in the boiler. One does it by blowing out 



i62 Maxims and Instructions, 

SCUMMING APPARATUS, 
the scum and some water at the same time, while the mechan- 
ical boiler-cleaner removes the scnm, but returns the water to 
the boiler. 

There are several efficient ways of arranging a surface blow- 
off. The principal part of the blow-off is a pan or perforated 
pipe placed horizontally at the water level having a pipe 
leading outside the boiler to any convenient place where the 
scum may be blown. When a perforated pipe is used the 
action is to force the scum from the top of the water during 
the time the valve is open, and blow it through the pipe. In 
using an apparatus of this kind it should be blown often, but 
only for a moment at a time, as all the scum near the pipe is 
removed immediately, and to keep the valve open longer than 
necessary to remove the scum near the pipe would allow the 
escape of clean water or steam which would be wasteful. If a 
pan is used and is fastened so that the top is secured at the 
ordinary water level, as shown in Fig. 70, the blow-off pipe 
leading from near the bottom of the pan, it will be . more effi- 
cient than the perforated pipe arrangement as it will not require 
to be used so often, and the waste of water and steam will not 
be so great. The pan, by producing an eddy in the water, 
causes all the scum to gather over the top, and as the water is 
quiet there it will gradually settle into the pan, where it will 
remain as mud. When the blow-off valve is opened the greater 
part of the mud which is gathered is blown out, and but very 
little water is carried with it. 

USE OF ZINC IN MARINE BOILERS. 

Zinc has been used in marine boilers for many years, but it 
was not until the publication in 1880 of the report of the 
Admiralty committee that the use of zinc became general. It 
has been used in various ways : 1. — Virgin spelter, as imported 
in oblong slabs of various sizes. 2. — Oast, or re melted zinc. 
3. — Cast zinc buttons, generally made from virgin spelter oi 
new clean zinc trimmings. 4. — Zinc spheres. 5. — Rolled zino 
blocks, generally 12 inches by 6 inches, and thicknesses vary- 
ing from i inch to IJ inch, generally with a 13-16-mch hole in 
the centre. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



^^3 



USE OF ZINC IN MARINE BOILERS. 

It is desirable that close-grained zinc of uniform structure 
and free from impurities should be used, and rolled zinc 
appears to meet this want. The wear is entirely confined to 
the surface. It does not appear to become distorted or broken 
up. On the contrary, it gradually wastes away till only a slight 
shred, a sort of skeleton frame work, remains to indicate what 
it has been. 

The primary object in the use of zinc in boilers is the pre- 
vention of corrosion, but it has also some effect in reducing the 
amount of incrustation, and rendering it softer and less 
adherent. 

Table 

Shoiving Amount of Sediment collecting in a steam toiler when 
evaporating 6,000 gallons per week, of 58,318 grains each. 



in of teed 
)rated to 
2 degrees 
leaves of 
ingrains: 


The amount of solid 


lion of feed 
porated to 
212 degrees 
;, leaves of 
r in grains: 


The amount of solid 


SftSJ^fe ' 


matter collocting 
in bnilflr per week will be: 


matter collecting 




d fci S ® H 


m boiler per 


week wHL be: 


« ® fl **ri I 






® '? c3 53'd 






iim 






Grains 






Grains. 


Pounds. 


Ounces. 


Pounds. 


Onnnes. 


1 




13.714 


55 


47 


8.285 


I 


1 


11.428 


60 


51 


6.857 


a 


% 


9.143 


65 


55 


11.428 


4 


3 


6.857 


70 


60 




6 


4 


4.571 


75 


64 


4.671 


6 


5 


2.285 


80 


68 


9.143 


7 


6 




85 


72 


13.714 


8 


6 


13.714 


90 


77 


2.285 


9 


7 


11.428 


95 


81 


6.857 


10 


8 


9.142 


100 


85 


11.428 


15 


12 


13.713 


110 


94 


4.571 


20 


17 


2.284 


120 


102 


13.714 


25 


21 


6.855 


130 


111 


6.857 


30 


25 


11.426 


140 


120 




35 


80 




150 


128 


9.142 


40 


1 ^4 


4.571 


160 


137 


- 2.285 


45 


38 


9.143 


170 


145 


11.428 


50 


42 


13.714 


180 


154 


1 4,571 

\ 



l6^ Maxims and Instructions. 



BOILER FIXTTTRES AISD BELONGINGS. 

A boiler is not complete witliout certain fixtures. There 
must be a feed-pump or injector, with a supply-pipe, feed- 
valve, safety feed-valve, and check-valve, in order to supply 
water properly to the boiler; gauge-cocks, a glass water-gauge, 
a blow-pipe, with its valve, to reduce the height of the water 
in the boiler, or to empty it entirely ; a safety-valve to allow the 
steam to escape from the boiler when it exceeds a fixed pressure; 
a scumming apparatus to remove the foreign matters from the 
water as much as possible ; a steam-pipe to convey the steam 
to the place where it is wanted ; man-holes and hand-holes, 
with their covers and guards, for examination and cleaning ; a 
non-corrosive steam-gauge, to accurately indicate at all times 
the amount of pressure in the boiler ; and a fusible plug to 
give warning in case of '*lo\v water /^ 

Thus we see that in speaking of a boiler, not only the boiler 
proper is meant, but also the whole of its fixtures and belong- 
ings, of which the following is only a partial list : 

Feed Pump, Surface Blow Cocks, 

Injector or Inspirator, Grate Bars, 

Check Valve, Baffle or Shield Plates, 

Gauge Cocks, Mud Drum, 

Glass Water Gauge, Feed Water Heaters, 

Try Cocks, Boiler Fronts, 

Blow-out Apparatus, Dead Plate, 

Blow-off Yalve, Steam Pressure Recording 

Safety Valve, Gauge, 

Scum Apparatus, Drain Cock for Steam Gauge, 

Steam Gauge, Steam Trap, 

Fusible Plug, Steam Whistle. 



Maxims and Instructions. i6^ 

BOILER FIXTURES. 
Ali these are attachments to the boiler proper, having direct 
reference to its internal functions ; but m addition there are 
the lugs, pedestals, or brackets which support the boiler ; the 
masonry in which it is set, with its binders, rods, and wall- 
plates ; the boiJer front, with its doors, anchor-bolts, etc.; the 
arch-plates, bearer-bars, grate-bars, and dampers, and last, but 
not least, the chimney. These are all equally necessary to 
enable the boiler to perform its duty properly. And besides, 
there are required fire- tools, flue brushes and scrapers, and 
scaling tools, with hose also, to wash out the boiler, to say 
nothing of hammers, chisels, wrenches, etc. 

The fittings and attachments of the marine boiler are similar 
to those belonging to the land steam generators, and vary only 
in accommodating themselves to their peculiar surroundings. 

The proper operation of the boiler as to efficiency and econ- 
omy is largely dependent upon the number, appropriate pro- 
portion and harmony of action of its numerous attachments, 
and the utmost care and skill are requisite for designing and 
attaching them. 

It must not be supposed that a complete list and description 
of all steam boiler attachments are here presented — that were a 
task beyond the limits of the entire volume, 

BOILER FRON^TS. 

Boiler fronts are made in many different styles, almost every 
maker having some peculiar points in design that he uses on 
his own boilers and which nobody else uses. 

In the illustrations here given may be seen the four princi- 
pal designs : 

1. The flush front is shown in Fig. 72. 

2. The overhanging front as seen in Fig. 73. 

3. The cutaway front. Fig. 74. 

4. Fronts with breaching as shown in Fig. 75. 

The flush front is one of the earliest forms of fronts, and 
though it often gives good satisfaction, yet it is liable to cer- 
tain accidents. 



160 



Maxims and Instructions, 




BOILEF FRONTS. 

k& will be seen from cot 
72, the front of the smoke 
arch, in this form of setting, 
is flush with the front of the 
brickwork, and the dry sheet 
just outside of the front 
head is built into the brick- 
work. The heat from the 
fire, striking through the 
brickwork, impinges on this 
sheet, which is unprotected 
by water on the inside. So 
long as the furnace walls are 
in proper condition the heat 
thus transmitted should not 
be sufificient to give trouble; 
but after running some time 
bricks are very apt to fall 

Frootfor Water TMte Boiler.-Fig. 71. ^^f? fr""* "^"^ *« ^^ ^""^^ 

and thus expose portions 

of the dry sheet to the 

direct action of the fire, 

causing it to be burned 

or otherwise injured by 

the heat, and perhaps 

starting a leakage 

around the front row of 

rivets when the head is 

attached to the shell. 

In the overhanging 

front this tendency is 

entirely prevented by 

setting the boiler in suck 

a manner that the dry 

sheet projects out into 

the boiler room. If the 

brickwork over tht: fire 

door falls away when a 

boiler is set in this man- 




Flush Front.— Fig. 72. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



j6 



/ 



BOILER FRONTS. 



n^i', the only effect If to 
slightly increase the heating 
surface. No damage can 
be done, since the sheet 
against which the heat 
would strike is protected by 
water on the inside. 

The objection is some- 
times raised against the pro- 
jecting front, that it is in 
the way of the fireman. To 
meet this point and yet pre- 
serve all the advantages of 
this kind of front, the cut- 
away style has come into use. 
In this form the lower por- 
tion or the front sheet is cut 
obliquely away, so that at 
the lowest point the boiler 
projects but little beyond 
the brickwork. 

It will be noticed that 
in the flush and overhang- 
ing fronts, the doors open 
sidewise, swing about on 
vertical hinges; in the 
cutaway front the best 
way to arrange the tube 
dooristorunahinge along 
the top of it, horizontally, 
and to have the door open 
upward. But with such 
a disposition of things the 
door is not easy to handle. 
For the purpose of gup- 
port a hook and chain, 
hanging from the roof 
should be provided. 




Overhanging Front. — Fig. 78. 




Cutaway Front.--Fig. 74. 



ihh 



Maxims and In struct ions. 



BOILEK FRONTS 

Tig 75 snows a boiler 
^iie setting of which is 
similar in general design 
to the other three,except 
that in the place of a 
cast-iron front it has 
bolted to it a sheet iron 
breeching that comeg 
down over the tnhes and 
I'eceives the gases of 
combustion from them. 
In Fig. 75 a manhole 
is shown under the 
tubes. This, of course, 
is not an essential fea- 
ture of the breeching, 
but it will be seen that 
manholes can readily be 
put below the tube^i on 
fronts of this kind, in 
such a manner as to be 
very convenient of access. 

In addition to these more general styles of boiler fronts, 
there are fronts designed particularly for patent boilers, water- 
front boilers, etc., which are made, very often, m ornamental 
and attractive designs. In Fig. 71 is shown a beautiful and 
appropriate design in use in connection with water tubular 
boilers. 




Front for Manhole.— Fig. 75. 



FURNACE DOORS. 

The chief points to be considered in the design of furnace 
doors are to prevent the radiation of heat through them, and 
to provide for the admission of air above the burning fuel in 
order to aid in the consumption of smoke and unburnt gases. 

In all cases where the doors are exposed to very rough usage 
— such, for instance, as in locomotive and marine boilers — the 
means for admitting air must be of the simplest, and consist 
generally of small perforations as shown m Fig. 76 which re- 



Maxims and Instructions. 



i6g 



FURNACE DOORS, 
presents a front view, and section of the furnace door of a 
bcomotive boiler. The heat from the burning fuel is prevented 




Fig. 1%. 
from radiating through the perforation in the outer door, by 
attaching to it a second or baffle plate, a, at a distance of about 
\\ inches, the holes in which do not coincide in direction with 
the door proper. By the constant entry of cold air from the 
outside the greater part of any heat which may be commu- 
nicated to the door by radiation or conduction is returned to 
the furnace. 

Doors similar to the above provide for the constant addition 
of limited quantities of fresh air above the fuel, but in actual 
practice, however, air is only needed above the fire for a few 
minutes after fresh fuel has been thrown on the grates and 
then is required in considerable quantities. In the case of 
land boilers, the furnace doors of which undergo comparatively 
mild treatment, it is possible to introduce the uecessary com- 
plications to effect this object. 




Kg. 77. 



jyo Maxims and Instructions, 

FURNACE DOORS. 

Fig. 77 shows an arrangement largely in use in New England, 
in which, by means of a diaphragm, the air is passed back and 
forth across the heated inner or baffle plate with the very best 
results. 

The air is first drawn by the natural draught into the hollow 
space between the iron door and its lining, through a row of 
holes A, in the lower part of the door, controlled however, by 
a slide not shown in the cut, then caused to flow back and 
forth across the width of the door by simply arranged 
diaphragms, and finally injected into the furnace through a 
series of minute apertures drilled in the upper part of the door 
liner, as indicated in cut at B, 

It will be seen that while the air may enter the door at a low 
temperature, it constantly becomes heated during its circulation 
until the instant it enters the furnace, it is ready to flash into 
flame with intense heat upon its incorporation with the ex- 
panding gases of the furnace. 

An arrangement in common use in Cornish and Lancashire 
boilers consists of a number of radial slits in the outer door 
which can be closed or opened at will in the same manner as 
an ordinary window ventilator. Other and more complicated 
arrangements have been frequently devised, which work admir- 
ably so long as they remain in order, but the frequent banging 
to which furnace doors are subjected, even in factory boilers, 
soon deranges delicate mechanism. 

Furnace doors should be made as small as possible consider- 
ing the proper distribution of fuel over the grate area, as other- 
wise the great rush of cold air, when the door is opened rapidly, 
cools down the flues and does considerable injury to tube plates, 
etc. ; for this reason it is desirable, when grates are over forty 
inches in width to have two doors to each furnace, which can 
be fired alternately. 

The great loss arising from a msh of cold air on opening the 
furnace doors for replenishing the fires with fuel has led to 
costly experiments to produce '*a mechanical stoker," or self 
boilei' feeding arrangement for supplying the coal as needed. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



171 



FUSIBLE PLUGS. 




In some States the insertion of fusible 
plugs at the highest fire line in boilers is 
compelled by law under a heavy penalty. 
Its design is to give the most emphatic 
warning of low water, and at the same 
time relieve the boiler of dangerous pres- 
sure. 

Figs. 78 and 79 exhibit two of the forms 
most commonly used, and on the succeed- 
Fig. 78. ing page, in cut 80, is shown the device 

in operation where the water has sunk to 
a dangerously low level. In the illustration the device is 
shown in connection with a locomotive boiler, in the common 
tubular boiler the plug is usually inserted in the rear head of 
the boiler, so that in case of its operation it will not endanger 
the fireman. 

These devices are designed to be screwed into the boiler shell 
at the safety line. The Figs. 78 & 79 exhibit their construction. 
The part to be screwed into the boiler is called the shell and is 
commonly made of brass ; the internal part is plug and is made 
of a soft metal like banca tin or a 
compound consisting of lead, tin 
and bismuth. This composition 
melts easily at the proper point 
to allow escape, where the water 
has sunk to a dangerously low 
level. 

There is considerable diversity 
in the make up of the material 
used for filling the plug, which 
must not have its melting point 
at anything less than the temper- 
ature of the steam lest it should 
"go oS." at the wrong time. Fig. TO. 




/72 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FUSIBLB SAFETY PLUG, 




Joooooooooooo<^ 



Fig. 80. 

. ' H the accident of low water occurs at a time where it is 
important to continue operations with the least possible delay, 
a. pine plug may be driven in the opening left by the melting 
of the fusible metal. In any event it is but a short job to re- 
new the fusible cap, it being only necessary to unscrew the nut 
: and insert aTiew cap, the rest of the device remaining intact. 

Tile plug should be renewed occasionally and the surface ex- 
posed inside th€ boiler be kept free from scale and deposit. II 
ife to be understood that the fusible portion extends entirely 
I through the shell of the boiler and when melted out makes a 
- "^nt for the water or steam. 
t All marine hollers in service in the United States are required 
i) have fusible plugs, one-half inch m diameter, made of prre 
tin, and nearly all first-class boiler makers put them m dac>^ 
boiler they build. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



m 



GRATE BARS. 




Fig. 81. 

The Grate Bars are a very important part of the furnace 
appliances. These consist of a nnmher of cast iron bars sup- 
ported on iron bearers placed at and across the front and 
back of the furnace. Innumerable forms of grate bars have 
been contrived to meet the cases of special kinds of fuel 
The type in common use is represented in Fig. 82. 



3/?. 




3^ 



Fig. 82. 

These cuts show a side view and a section of a single bar, 
and a plan of three bars in position. Each bar is in fact a 
small girder, the top surface of which is wider than the 
bottom. On each bar are cast lugs, the width of which de- 
termines the size of the opening for the passage of air. 
This openmg varies in width according to the character of 
the fuel ; for anthracite f inch is a maximum, while the soft 
coals I to f inch is often used ; fOr pea and nut coal still 
smaller openings than either of those are used, i, e,, i and 
f inches. Eor wood the opening should be a full inch in 
width. 

For long furnaces the bars are usually made into two lengths, 
with a bearer in the middle of the grate, as shown in Fig. 83. 
As a rule long grates are set with a considerable slope towards 



^74 



Maxims and Instructions, 



GRATE BARS. 




Fig. 83. 

the bridge in order to facilitate the distribution of the fuel; 
an inch to a foot is the rule commonly approved. 

V 




Fig. 84. 

Rocking and shaking grates are now very extensively used; 
these combine a dumping arrangement, and very largely 
lessen the great labor of the fireman, and by allowing the 
use of slack and other cheap forms of fuel are very econom- 
ical. Several patents are issued upon this form of grate bars, 
all working on essentially the same principle. Fig. 84 exhib- 
its an efficient form of a shaking grate. As shown in the cut, 
the grates are arranged to dump the ashes and clinkers. By 
the reverse motion the flat surface of the grates are restored. 

Trouble with grate bars comes from warping or twisting 
caused by excessive heat, and burning out, produced by the 
same cause — this explains the peculiar shape in which grates 
are made — very narrow and very deep. A free introduction 



Maxims and Instructions, 77^ 

GRATE BARS, 
of air not only causes perfect combustion but tends towards the 
preservation of the bars. 

Grate bars are usually placed so as to incline towards the 
rear, the inclination being from one to two inches ; this facili- 
tates somewhat the throwing of the coal into the furnace. 

The proportion between grate and heating surface should be 
determined by the kind of fuel to be used. The greatest 
economy will be attained when the grate is of a size to cause 
the fire to be forced, and have the gases enter the chimney only 
a few degrees hotter than the water in the boiler. 

If the grate is too large to admit of forcing the fire, the 
combustion is naturally slower, and consequently the tempera- 
ture in the furnace is lower, and the loss from the escaping 
gases is greater. 

It must be borne in mind that the only heat which can be 
utilized is that duo to the difference in temperature between 
the fire and the water in the boiler. For example, if the tem- 
perature in the furnace be 975°, and the water in the boiler 
have a temperature due to 80 pounds of steam, viz. : 325°, it is 
evident that the heat which can be utilized is the difference 
between them, or f of the total heat. Now if the fire be 
forced, and the furnace temperature raised to 2600°, J of 
the total heat can be utilized ; so it can be readily seen that 
the grate should be of such a size as to have the fire burn 
rapidly. 

The actual ratio of grate to heating surface should not in 
any case be less than 1 to 40, and may with advantage, in many 
cases, be 1 to 50. This proportion will admit of very sharp 
fires, and still insure the greater portion of the heat being 
transmitted to the water in the boiler. 

The water grate bars, invented in 1824, and since frequently 
applied to locomotives and marine boilers, do not seem to 
grow in popular favor, and are scarcely known in stationary 
boilers. 

The objections urged against them are the expense of main- 
tenance, their fittings and attachments, and the possibility of 
serious ctjnsequences should they rupture or burn out. 



ij6 



Maxims and Instructions. 




WATER GAUGE COOKS. 

It IS of the first importance that those in charge of a boiler 
shall know with certainty the position of the water leveJ 
within the boiler. 

1 

These attachments, also called 
Try cocks, are usually placed in a 
conspicuous and accessible posi- 
tion on the front of boilers. They 
are so arranged that one will blow 
only steam, one at the working 
level of the water, and the third 
at the lowest water level or say 
three inches above the highest 
point of the fire line of the boiler. 
The cut. Fig. 85, exhibits them 
as commonly arranged. 

It is not essentially requisite. 
Fig. 85. that the cocks themselves should 

be placed at the point indicated, 
so long as they have pipes projecting internally into the boiler, 
with their ends corresponding to the height of water above 
mentioned. In order that these cocks may readily be cleaned 
out, a plug is usually fitted into bit of cock opposite the port 
or opening of the plug, upon removing which a pricker can be 
readily inserted. 

The gauge or cocks should be tested many times each day, 
and when opened the top one should always give steam and 
the bottom one water. They should be allowed to remain 
open long enough to make sure whether steam or water is 
issuing from the cock. This is a matter of instruction, but 
the beginner with a little experience can detect the difference 
by the sound. 

In so universal an appliance as this there are very many 
forms and arrangements, but they all work upon the same 
principle as stated above. 



Maxims and Instructional 



in 



GLASS GAFGES. 

These are the second and auxiliary arrangementg for ascer 
tainmg the water line. Nearly all 
boilers are supplied with both try 
cocks and glass gauges, and so im- 
portant is it considered to be cor- 
rectly informed as to the water line 
that a third method consisting of a 
float which is carried on the water 
surface, is sometines added to the 
two named. 

Tlie glass water gauge column 
consists of an upright casting bolted 
to the front of the boiler, in which 
are fixed two cocks having stuffing 
boxes for receiving the gauge glass. 
The lower of these cocks is also 
fitted with a drain cock for blowing 
out the glass. 

The try cocks are frequently placed 
on the above-mentioned standard or 
column. Pig. 86. 

The action of the gauge glass is to show the level of the 
water in the boiler by natural gravitation and the best position 
for it is in view of the engine room, as close to the boiler as 
possible and preferably in the middle line of its diameter, at 
such height that its lowest portion is about two inches above 
the highest part of the fire line of the boiler, and its centre, 
nine inches above that, making the total visible portion of glass 
eighteen inches long. 

Glass water gauges sometimes have pipe connections top and 
bottom. The object of this arrangement is to have an undis- 
turbed water level in the glass by carrying one pipe to the 
steam dome and tho other near to the bottom of the boiler ; 
the one position not being so liable to be affected by foaming 
and the other by the boiling of the water. Cocks should 
always be fitte<i to the boiler ends of these pipes, in order that 




y/S Maxims and Instructions. 



Water gauges. 
in case of accident to the pipes, steam and water may be shut 
ofP. 

The glasses are liable to burst and become choked np with 
dirt. The former defect is easily repaired by shutting off the 
cocks in connection with the boiler and putting in a new glass. 
The mud or sediment is cleaned out by ojDening the above- 
mentioned drain or blow-out cock and allowing the steam or 
water, or both, to rush through the glass, which will effectually 
blow out all sediment and leave the glass in good condition 
again to show the height of the water in the boiler. 

In opening the cocks connected with the glasses, it should be 
done cautiously, as the glass is liable to burst. 

A strip of white running the whole length of the glass on 
the side toward the boiler is a great help in observing the 
variations of the water line in the tube. 

It is not needed to remove the gauge glasses to clean them. 
There are good fixtures in the market that by taking out thw 
plug in the top, the glass may be cleaned with a bit of wicking 
on the end of a stick. A slight scratch will break the glass, 
hence do not use wire. Use soft rubber gaskets when setting 
the glass, screw up until all leaking stops. Don't let the glass 
come in contact with the metal anywhere. Don't try to reset 
the glass with an old hard gasket. Two glasses from the same 
bundle will not act alike. 

The glasses used to show the water line are made of a soft 
glass known as ** lead glass,*' and are easily cut, or broken 
square across. Most of them can bo broken by tiling a notch 
at the point at which it is necessary to break them. After 
filing the notch, place the thumbs as if you would break the 
glass; it will crack easily, and the fracture be straight and 
clean. If the tube be brittle, as some are, to avoid cutting the 
hands wrap two pieces of paper around the glass, each side of 
the notch. If the ends are rough or uneven, they can be made 
smooth by filing or by the grindstone. 

The Manchester, Eng., Boiler Association attribute more 
accidents to inattention to water gauges than to flJl other causes 



Maxims and Instruction$, /^p 



WATER GAUGES. 

pnt together. It is, therefore, of much importance fhat these 
glasses should be kept clean. It is not an uncommon thing to 
go into a boiler room and find that a leaky stuffing box has 
allowed the steam or water to blow out, and, by running down 
the outside of the glass, leave a deposit of lime scale. After 
this deposit has been formed, it is sometimes difficult to remove 
— and more than a few glasses have been broken by the engi- 
neer attempting to remove the scale. After this scale has once 
been formed, unless it is soft enough to be wiped off with a 
piece of waste, it is best to take the glass out and soak or 
wash it in a solution of one-half muriatic acid and one-half 
water until it is clean or the scale so softened that it may be 
readily wiped off. To prevent the scale from again forming 
and hardening, the glass should be dipped in glycerine before 
replacing. 

THE MTJD DKUM, 

The mud drum is attached to a boiler with the expectation 
that it will catch and hold the larger portion of the sediment 
precipitated from the water. The mud drum to be effective 
should be protected from the heat of the fire, for so soon as it 
receives sufficient heat to boil the water within it can no longer 
serve the purpose for which it was intended as all the sediment 
which may have gathered would be expelled by the ebullition 
of the water. When the drum is located under the boiler it is 
not in a good position to catch the sediment, as the boiling water 
produces sufficient current to carry the sediment to the top, 
or keep it violently agitated, so that there is little opportunity 
for it to be deposited anywhere so long as the boiler is making 
steam. Afterward when the water is quiet the sediment for the 
most part is deposited on the tubes and the curve of the shell ; 
the small portion falling into the neck of the drum serves prin- 
cipally to show the inefficiency of the device. Located under 
the boiler as it generally is, makes it extremely difficult to get 
at for examination, and as a consequence of its being enclosed, 
as it must be, to be of much importance, it is subject to greater 
deterioration that would otherwise be the case, and as the 
enclosure to be most efficient would enclose the neck also, the 



l8o Maxims and Instructions, 



THE MUD DRUM. 

difference of expansion afc or near the junction would soon 
produce leaking if not worse. When the mud drum is located 
outside the boiler walls where it would be most efificient, if 
properly connected, it loses its identity and becomes a mechan- 
ical boiler cleaner. In consequence of these drawbacks the 
mud drum is becoming antiquated as a boiler appliance, and is 
now seldom used. 

BAFFLE PLATES. 

These are a device sometimes used inside steam boilers to check 
the too sudden flow of steam towards the exit pipe, they are sim- 
ply plate to baffle the rush of the steam so as to avoid foaming. 

In Fig. 90 baffle plate is illustrated by the division casting 
against which the steam strikes on its passage from the boiler 
to the engine. The liners or inner plates of the boiler doors 
are baffle plates. 

DEAD PLATE. 

This is a flat plate of iron immediately inside the furnace 
door and is used in many boilers in order to insure the more 
perfect combustion of the coal. 

When the fresh fuel is laid on, it is placed on the dead 
plate instead of on the grate ; in this position the coal is 
coked, the gases from the coal being ignited as they pass 
over the already intensely hot fuel in the furnace, the fuel 
from the dead plate is pushed forward to make place for 
another charge to be put on the dead plate. But more fre- 
quently, as elsewhere described, the fuel is throvTn over and 
across the dead plate directly upon the hot fire. 

STEAM WHISTLES. 

These are of two kinds, known as the bell-whistle and organ- 
tube whistle ; the latter is now fast superseding the former on 
account of the simplicity of construction and superior tone. 
An improved form has a division in the tube so as to emit two 
distinct notes, which may be in harmony, or discord, and when 
sounded together may be heard a long distance. 

It is important that the whistle shall sound as soon as the 
steam is turned on ; to ensure this great care must be taken to 
keep the whistle-pipe free from water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



i8i 



THE STEAM GAUGE. 

The principle of construction of the dial steam gauge is, 
that the pressure may be indicated by means of a pointer in a 
divided dial similar to a clock face, but marked in division, 
indicating pounds pressure per square inch instead of hours 
and minutes. 

Figs. 87 and 88 show the ordinary style of gauge which con- 
sists of an elliptical tube, connected at one end to a steam pipe 
in communication with the boiler pressure and at the other 
end with gearing to a pointer spindle as shown m cut. 

An inverted syphon pipe is usually formed under the gauge, 
its object being to contain water and thus prevent the heat of 
the steam injuring the machinery of the gauge, or distorting 
its action by expansion. 





Fig. 87. Fig. 86. 

A small drain cock should be fitted to the 
leg of the syphon of a steam gauge, leading 
to the boiler, at a level with the highest 
point the water can rise in the other leg, 
otherwise an increased pressure will be indi- 
cated, due to the head of water which would 
otherwise collect in the boiler leg of the 
syphon. 

Fig. 89. Steam gauges indicate the pressure of steam 




i82 Maxims and Instructions. 

THE STEAM GAUGE. 

above the atmosphere only, the total pressure being measured 
from a perfect vacuum which will add 14tV lbs. on the average 
to the pressure shown on the steam gauge. 

These gauges are apt to get out of order in consequence of 
water lodging in the end of the heat tube and corroding the 
latter. It may be easily known when they are out of order by 
raising the pressure of the steam in the boiler and watching 
when it commences to blow off at the safety valve, and then 
noting the position of the index finger. The pressure regis- 
tered by the finger should, of course, then correspond with the 
known blow off pressure of the valves ; if it does not, one or 
the other or both of these instruments must be out of order ; 
therefore, when this is the case and a disagreement occurs, the 
steam gauge may be presumed to need correction. 

It should also be noted that the steam gauge finger points to 
zero when steam pressure is cut off. A two-way cock should 
be used for closing the connection between the steam gauge 
and the boiler, and at the same time to let air into the steam 
gauge. 

The steam shou'd never be allowed to act directly on a steam 
gauge when located in cold situations where they are liable to 
freeze. The valve on the boiler should be closed and the water 
allowed to drip out, and, before the steam is turned on from 
the boiler, the drip on the gauge should be closed, in order 
that sufficient steam may be condensed in the pipe to furnish 
the quantity of water necessary to keep the steam from striking 
the gauge. 

A ready method for 'being always alle to prove the correctness 
of your st ea m ga uge. 

When steam is at some point not over half the usual pressure, 
place the ball on the safety valve at the point where it com- 
meners to blow off and mark the place. Move the ball twice 
as far from the fulcrum as this mark, and it should blow off at 
twice the pressure as indicated by the gauge, or it is not right. 
Any other relative distance may be used to advantage. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



1S3 



STEAM SEPARATOK. 



This appliance, which is also 
called an interceptor or catch 
water, is generally a T shaped 
^ pipe. 

This, although not a boiler 
fixture or fitting, is intimately 
connected with them : it is an 
appliance fast coming into use 
both for land and marine en- 
gines, to guard against the 
danger to steam engine cylin- 
ders arising from ''the prim- 
ing '' of the boilers when the 
steam is used at a high pressure 
with high speed of the piston. 

The separator is usually 
placed in the engine room, so 



Fig. 90. 

as to be well in sight. The steam is led down the pipe round a 
diaphragm plate and then up again to the engine steam pipe. 
By this means any priming or particles of water that may be 
brought from the boiler with the steam will fall to the bottom 
of the interceptor or catch water, from whence it can be blown 
out, according to the arrangement of the pipes, by opening the 
drain cock fixed on the bottom. It has a water gauge fixed on 
the lower end, so as to show whether water is accumulating ; 
and the engineer's attention is required to see that this water 
is from time to time blown off. 




In the illustration, Fig. 90, is shown the simplest form in 
which the device can be made. The arrows exhibit the direc- 
tion in which the steam travels, the aperture whence the water 
is to be blown out and the place for attachment of a water 
column. In practical construcHon the separator should have a 
diameter twice that of the steam pipe and be 2|- to 3 diameters 
long. It IS often made with a round top and flat bottom and 
sometimes with both ends hemispherical. The division plate 
should extend half the diameter of the steam pipe below the 
level of the bottom of the steam pipe. 



184 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE SEPARATOR. 

In Fig. 91 is shown an improved form of a steam separator 
which consists of a shell or casing in which there is firmly 
secured a double-ended cone. On this cone there are cast a 
number of wings, extending spirally along its exterior. On 
entering the separator the steam is spread and thrown outward 
by the cone and given a centrifugal motion by the spiral wings. 
These wings are constructed with a curved surface. 

It will be noticed that the steam on entering the separator is 
immediately expanded from a solid body into an annular space 
of equal volume to the steam pipe, whereby its particles are 
removed from the centre and thus receive a greater amount of 
centrifugal motion. The entrained water or grease, etc., is 
thus precipitated against, and flows along the shell of the sep- 
arator, and is collected in a well of ample proportions at base of 
separator, where it is entirely isolated from the flow of dry steam. 



O^t-Q'vvk. v*Wv»^ 



arsBBasBBX 







4t 




KC 






Fig. 91. 



rf 



.\ 



SENTINEL VALVE. 

It was formerly required for each marine boiler to have a 
small valve loaded with a weight to a few pounds per square 
inch above the working pressure, so that in case of the safety 
valves sticking fast and the gauge being false, an alarm might 
be given when there was an excess of pressure. Such valves 
were about f inch in diameter and sometimes as small as f. 
An arrangement of a small safety valve attaclied to a whistle 
has been introduced, but with advances in other directions 
relating to safety these specialties are now getting to be only 
known by name. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



^SS 



DAMPER REGULATORS. 

These are well-known devices for so controlling the draught 
of the chimney that the steam pressure in the boiler will be 
increased or decreased automatically, that is, without the aid 
of a person. The regulator shown in Fig. 92, which is one of 

many excellent forms on the market, 
has the power to move the damper 
in both directions by water pressure, 
exerting a force on the end of the 
lever of nearly 200 lbs., thus com- 
pelling a certain and positive motion 
of the damper when a variation in 
the boiler pressure takes place. It 
will open or close the damper upon 
the variation of less than one pound 
v'/"//L-— — «\ \\ ^^ pressure. The close regulation 
^V^^^ l^^^^>&\ affords a test for the correctness of 

the steam gauge. 

This regulator, by using the water 

pressure from the boiler as a motive 

I \\\U/// / power, becomes a complete engine 

W uW/k^S^ without the connecting rod and 

Vk WlUllZlZl^ crank, having a balanced piston 

^^ 1^ valve, the valve stem of which is 

^^■^==< "1 enlarged where ifc passes through the 

upper end of the chest into a piston 

Fig. 93. of small area, working in a small 

open ended cylinder cast on the chest. The pressure forcing 

this piston outward is counterbalanced by weights as shown in 

illustration. 

The differential motion is accomplished by the device shown 
at the top of small cylinder. 

FUEL ECONOMIZER AND FEED WATER PURIFIER. 

This device, shown in Fig. 93, is designed to utilize the 
waste products of combustion as they pass from the furnace to 
the chimney. Its use permits a high and consequently efficient 
temperature under the boilers and yet saves the excess of heat. 
It acts also as a mechanical boiler cleaner, furnishing a settling 




i86 



Maxims and Instructions, 



ITTEL ECONOMIZER AND FEED WATER PURIFIER, 
chamber for the deposit of the impurities separated by the heat 
which nearly equals that of the live steam in the boiler. This 
device adds largely to the water capacity of the boiler, fre- 
quently containing one-half the weight of the water held in the 
boiler itself. 

It will be readily understood that the openings between the 
vertical tubes are ample for the chimney flue area and that the 
device is located between the chimney and the boiler, with the 
waste furnace heat passing between the tubes. 




Fig. 93. 



The economizer shown in Fig. 93 cons^.sts of sections of vei- 
tical 4i" boiler tubes fitted to their top and bottom headers by 
taper joints. The top headers are provided with caps over 
each tube to permit cleaning out the sediment and remove and 
replace any tube that may become damaged. The several top 
headers are connected together at one end by lateral openings 
and the bottom heailers are also connected as shown in cut, 
having hand holes opposite each bottom header to provide for 
cleaning out. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



187 



FUEL ECONOMIZER ANB FEED WATER PURIFIER. 

Mechanical scrapers are made to travel up and down each 
tube to keep them clear of soot. These are controlled by an 
automatic mechanism and driving head, as shown in Fig. 93. 

The important features about the economizer are, 1, its 
adaptability to any type of boiler, 2, the saving attained by 
utilizing that heat which has necessarily been an almost total 
waste, 3, the purifying of the water by means of the intense 
heat and slow circulation of the feed water, 

SAFETY VALVES. 





Fig. 94. (Sectional View. ) 

The safety valve is a circular valve seated on the top of 
the boiler, and weighted to such an extent, that when the 
pressure of the steam exceeds a certain point, the valve is 
lifted from its seating and allows the steam to escape. Safety 
valves can be loaded directly with weights, or the load can be 
transmitted to the valve by a lever. Again, the end of the 
lever is sometimes held down by a spring, or the spring may 
be applied directly to the valve seat. 



i88 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



THE SAFETY VALVE. 
Fig. . 94 (2 views) exhibits a spring loaded safety valve. 
These are generally provided with a reaction li p, surrounding 
the seat, which causes them to open much further, and thus 
enables them to discharge a larger volume of steam than a lever 
valve of equal diameter. 

The operation can be easily understood by examining the 
figures. As soon as the steam pressure is high enough to lift 
the valve disc clear from its seat, the steam will escape around 
the valve seat as in an ordinary lever safety valve, but instead 
of escaping directly into the atmosphere, the current of steam 
is turned downward against the reaction lip, by the curved pro- 
jection on the valve disc, which can be seen in the figure. The 
steam pressure is thus assisted in holding the valve open, as 
well as raising it much higher, giving a larger opening than 
would be the case if the valve were lifted by the pressure alone. 
Spring loaded valves are mostly used on marine boilers, 
locomotives and portable boilers, and wherever outside disturb- 
ances interfere with the action of a weight. 

A '^pop'^ safely valve is a com- 
mon form of safety valve and takes 
its name from the fact that it takes 
a little more pressure to raise it off 
its seat than what it is set at, conse- 
quently it releases itself with a 
*'pop." 

Fig. 95 shows a form of dead 
weight safety valves when a is the 
valve which rests on the seating b. 

The valve is attached to the cir- 
cular casting A, A, A, so that both 
rise and fall together. The weights 
W, W, etc., are disposed on the 
casting in rings, which can be 
adjusted to the desired blow off pres- 
sure. Owing to the center of gravi ty 
of the casting and weight being below 
the valve, the latter requires no 




Fig. 95. 



Maxims and Instructions, i8g 

THE SAFETY VALVE. 

requires no guides to keep it in position. This is a great ad- 
vantage as guides frequently stick, and prevent the valve 
from acting. Another advantage of this form of valve is, 
that it is difficult to tamper with. For instance, a four-inch 
valve, intended to blow off at 100 lbs. per square inch would 
require weight of over 1,200 lbs., which require a considerable 
bulk. An unauthorized addition of a few pounds to such a 
mass would make no appreciable addition to the blowing off 
pressure, while any effectual amount added to the weight 
would be immediately noticed. It is quite different with the 
lever safety valve about to be described, a small addition to the 
weight at the end of the lever is multiplied several times at 
the valve. 

IT. S. EuLEs Eelating to Safety Valves. 

Extract from rules and regulations passed and approved 
Feb. 25, 1885, by the United States Board of Supervising 
Inprectors of Steam Vessels : 

Sectiois' 24. " Lever safety valves to be attached to marine 
boilers shall have an area of not less than one square inch to 
two square feet of the grate surface in the boiler, and the seats 
of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclmation of 
forty-five degrees to the centre line of their axis. 

** The valves shall be so arranged that each boiler shall have 
one separate safety valve, unless the arrangement is such as to 
preclude the possibility of shutting off the communication of 
any boiler with the safety valve or valves employed. This 
arrangement shall also apply to lock-up safety valves when 
they are employed. 

"Any sprmg-loaded safety valves constructed so as to give 
an increased lift by the operation of steam, after being raised 
from their seats, or any spring- loaded safety valve constructed 
in any other manner, or so as to give an effective area equal to 
that of the aforementioned spring-loaded safety valve, may be 
used in lieu of the common lever-weighted valve on all boilers 
on steam vessels, and all such spring-loaded safety valves shall 



igo Maxims and Instructions, 

U. S. RULES RELATING TO SAFETY VALVES. 

be required to have an area of not less than one square inch to 
three square feet of grate surface of the boiler, and each spring- 
loaded Yalve shall be supplied with a lever that will raise the 
valve from its seat a distance of not less than that equal to one- 
eighth the diameter of the valve opening, and the seats of all 
such safety valves shall have an angle of inclination to the 
centre-line of their axis of forty-five degrees. But in no case 
shall any spring-loaded safety valve be used in lieu of the lever^ 
weighted safety valve, without first having been approved by 
the Board of Supervising Inspectors." 

The following size ''Pop" Safety Valves are required for 
boilers having grate surfaces as below : 

2 inch ''Pop'' Valve for 9.42 square feet of grate surface. 



3i 

3 

4 

5 

6 



" '* 14.73 *' " 

'' " 21.20 " " 

" " 37.69 " " 

*' " 58.90 " *' 

" " 84.82 " '* 



Professor Rankin"'s Rule. — Multiply the number of 
pounds of water evaporated per hour by .006, and the product 
will be the area m square inches of the valve. 

The U. S. Steamboat Inspection Law requires for the com- 
mon lever valve one square inch of area of valve for every two 
square feet of area of grate surface. 

United States Navy Department deduced from a series of 
experiments the following rule : Multiply the number of 
pounds of water evaporated per hour by .005, and the product 
will be the area of the valve in square inches. 

Rule adopted by the Philadelphia Department of Steam 
Engine and Boiler Inspection : 

1. Multiply the area of grate in square feet by the number 
22.5. 2. Add the number 8.62 to the pressure allowed per 
square inch. Divide (1) by (2) and the quotient will be the 
area of the valve in square inches. This is the same as the 
French rule. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



igi 



SAFETY VALVE RULES. 

The maximum desirable diameter for safety valves is four 
inches, for beyond this the area and cost increase much more 
rapidly than the effective discharging around the circumference. 

There should not be any stop valve between the boiler and 
safety valve. 

The common form of safety valve is shown in Fig. 96. 

Here the load is attached to the end B of the lever A, B, the 
fulcrum of which is at c. The effective pressure on the valvf, 
and consequently the blowing off pressure in the boiler can be 
regulated within certain limits, by sliding the weight IF along 
the arm of the lever. In locomotive engines, as well as on ma- 
rine boilers, the weight would on account of the oscillations, be 
inadmissible and a spring is used to hold down the lever. 

In the calculations regarding the lever safety valve, there 
are five points to be determined, and it is necessary to know 
four of these in order to find the fifth. These are : (1) The 
Steam Pressure, (2) The Weight of Ball, (3) The Area of 
Valve, (4) The Length of Lever, (5) The Distance from the 
Valve Centre to the Fulcrum. 




Fig. 96. 
In making these calculations it is necessary to take into 
account the load on the valve due to the weight of the valve- 
stem and lever. The leverage wdth which this weight acts is 
meaFured by the distance of its centre of gravity from the 
fulcrum The centre of gravity is found by balancing the 
lever on a knife edge, and the weight of the valve-stem and 



ig2 Maxims and instructions. 



SAFETY VALVE RULES 
lever can be fotiiid by actual weighing. This load can also be 
found by attaching a spring balance to the lever exactly over 
the centre of the valve stem when they are in position. The 
following examples will be computed under these conditions : 
(1) Steam Pressure, 120 pounds; (2) Weight of Ball, 100 
pounds ; (3) Weight of Valve and Lever, 60 pounds, weighed 
in position ; (4) Length of Lever, 45 inches ; (5) Length of 
Distance from Valve Centre to Fulcrum, 5 inches ; (6) Area of 
Valve, 8 square inches. 

To find the area of the valve : 

EuLE. — Multiply the length of the lever by the weight of the 
ball, and divide the product by the distance from the valve centre 
to the fulcrum, and to the quotient add the effective weight 
of the valve and lever, and divide the sum by the steam pressure. 

Example. 
45 inches, length of the lever, 
100 pounds, weight of the ball, 



Fulcram, 5 in.)4500 



900 
60 pounds, weight of valve and lever. 



Steam pressure 120lbs.)960(8 square inches, area of valve. 

960 

To find the pressure at which the valve will Mow off: 

Rule. — Multiply the length of the lever by the weight of the 

ball ; divide this product by the distance from the valve centre 

to the fulcrum, and to the quotient add the effective weight of 

the lever and valve, and divide the sum by the area of the valve. 

Example, 
45 inches, length of lever, 
100 pounds, weight of ball, 

Fulcrum 5 in.) 4500 

900 
60 pounds, weight of valve and lever, 



AreaofValveS) 960 



120 pounds, pressure at which valve will \Ao^i. 



Maxims and Instructions. jgj 

SAFETY VALVE RULES. 
To find the weight of hall: 

KuLE. — Multiply the steam pressure by the area of the valve, 
and from the product subtract the effective weight of the valve 
and lever, then multiply the remainder by the distance from 
the valve centre to the fulcrum, and divide the product by the 
length of the lever. 

Example. 

120 pounds, steam pressure, 
8 inches, area of valve. 



960 
60 pounds, weight ot vaive and lever. 



900 

5 inches, fulcrum, 

Length of lever, 45 in.)4500 

100 pounds, weight of ball. 

To find the length of lever : 

Rule. — Multiply the steam pressure by the area of the valve, 
and from the product subtract the effective weight of the valve 
and lever, then multiply the remainder by the distance from 
the valve centre to the fulcrum, and divide the product by the 
weight of the ball. 

Example, 

120 pounds, steam pressure, 
8 inches, area of valve. 



960 
60 pounds, weight of valve and lever, 



900 
5 



100)4500(45 length of level. 

Every boiler should be provided with two safety valves, one 
of which should be put beyond the control of the attendant. 



ig4 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO SAFETY VALVES. 

Safety valves that stick will do so even though tried every 
day, if they are simply lifted and dropped to the old place on 
the seat again. If a hoilcr sJioidd be found witli an excessively 
high pressure, it ivouJd be one of the ivorsf fhvigs to do to start 
the safety valve from its seat tinless extra weiaht was addedy for 
should the valve once start, it would so suddenly relieve the 
boiler of such a volume of steam as would cause a rush of water 
to the opening, and by a blow, just the same as m water ham- 
mer, rupture ^1t^ bo^'er. 

Such a conuitlon Is very possible to occur of itself when a 
safety valve sticks. The valve holds the pressure, that gets 
higher and hio-h'^r, until so high that the safety valve does give 
way and allows so much steam to escape that the sudden 
changing of conditions sets the water in motion, and an explo- 
sion may result. 

The noise made by a safety valve when it is blowing off may 
be regarded in two ways. First, by it is known that the 
valve is capable of performing its proper function, and that 
there is, therefore, a reasonable assurance that no explosion 
will result from excessive pressure of steam or other gas, and 
on the other hand too much noise of this kind indicates 
wasted fuel. 

The hole of the safety valve may be 2, 3 or 4 inches ; that 
does not say that the area is 3. 1416, 7.06 or 12.56 square inches, 
but the area is that which is inside of the joint. The valve 
opening may be, say 2 inches, but the circle of contact of valve 
to seat maybe of an average diameter of 2^ inches, if so, all the 
close calculations otherwise will not avail. In the first place, 
the area of 2 inches equals 3,1416 ; that of 2;J diameter equals 
3,5466, showing a difference of A square inches. 

Note. 

Very extended rules issued by the TJ. S. Government foi 
calculating the safe working pressure, dimensions and propor- 
tions of the. safety valves for marine boilers are reprinted m 
*' Hawkins' Calculations " for engineers. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



195 



POINTS RELATING TO SAFETY VALVES. 
When a safety valve is described as a ''2 inch safety valve/' 
etc., it means that two inches is tlie diameter of the pipe; hence 
the following rule and examples for finding the area. 

Rule por fi:n"ding Aeea of Valve Ope:>:ixg. 
Square the diameter of the opening and multiply tne product 
by the decimal .7854. 

Example. ^ 

What is the area of a three inch valve? Now tlen: 

3 X 3 = 9 X .7854 = 1.-^^^ square inches, Ans. 
Note. — A shorter method of calculating by .7854 in larger 
sums is to multiply by 11 and divide by 14, for decimal .7855 
= the fraction i^th. Note : . 7854 is the area of a circular inch. 
When valves rise from their seats under increasing steam 
pressure they do so by a constantly diminished ratio which has 
been carefully determined by experiment and reduced to the 
following table. 



Pressure in Lbs. 


Rise of Valve. 


Pressure in lbs. 


Bla««Cyal««L 


13 


1-36 


60 


1-86 


20 


1-48 


70 


M32 


35 


1-64 


80 


1-168 


46 


1-65 


90 


1-168 


60 


1-86 







The following useful table was prepared by the Novelty Iron 

Works, New York. 



Boiler Pressure 
in Lbs. Above 
the Atmos- 
phere. 


Area of Orifice in 

Sq. In. for Each 

Sq. Ft. of Heating 

Surface. 


Boiler Pressure 
in Lbs. Above 
the Atmos- 
phere. 


Area of Orifice in 1 
Sq. In. for Each 
Sq. Ft. of Heating 
Surface. 


0.25 


.022794 


40. 


.001723 


0.5 


.021164 


60. 


.001389 


1. 


.018515 


60. 


.001176 


2. 


.014814 


70. 


.001015 


3. 


.012345 


80. 


.000892 


4. 


.010582 


90. 


.000796 


6. 


.009259 


100. 


.000719 


10. 


.005698 


150. 


.000481 


20. 


.003221 


200. 


.000364 


30. 


.002244 







ep5 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 



AlLn 








Ther« are two forms of 
feed water heaters: (1) The 
HOT WATER OUTLET closecl lieatcv , where the feed 
^ water passes through tubes, 
which are enclosed in a 
shell, through which the ex- 
haust steam passes. (2) The 
open heater^ in which the 
steam and water come into 
contact. In the latter the 
water is sprayed into a space, 
through which the exhaust 
steam passes, or is run over 
a number of inclined perfor- 
ated copper plates, mingled 
with the exhaust steam. 

The original feed water 
heater called a ^^pot heat- 
er," consisted of a vessel so 
constructed that the feed 
water was sprayed through 
the exhaust steam 
into a globe formed 
tank, from the 
bottom of which 
the heated water 
was pumped into 
the boiler ; its 
name was origi- 
nally the '^pot 
heater," but as it 
was open to the air 
through the ex- 
haust pipe, it was, 
with its succes- 
'siyely improved 
forms called the 
^1 open heater. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



rgy 



StCRM 
OOTLEI 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 
All the heat imparted to the feed water, before it enters the 
boiler, is so much saved, not only in the cost of fuel, but by 
the increased capacity of the boiler, as the fuel in the furnace 
will not have this duty to perform. There are two sources of 
waste heat which can be utilized for tins purpose : the chimney 

gases and the exhaust 
steam. The gases escap- 
ing to the chimney after 
being reduced to the lowest 
possible temperature con- 
tain a considerable quan- 
tity of heat. This waste 
of heat energy may be 
largely saved by the device 
illustrated on page 186. 

How much saving is ob- 
tained under any given 
condition is a question 
requiring for its solution a 
careful calculation of all of 
the conditions which have 
a bearing on the subject. 
Exhaust steam under at- 
mospheric "pressure only 
has a sensible temperature 
of 212 degrees, but exhaust 
steam contains also a large 
number of heat units which 
are given up when the 
steam is condensed into 
water; for this reason it 
might be thought possi- 
Fig. 98. ble to raise the temperature 

of the feed water a few degrees higher even than the sensible 
temperature of the exhaust steam. But this should not be 
expected, on account of the radiation of heat that would occur 
above that of the steam. 

The steam which escapes from the exhaust pipe dissipates 
into the atmosphere ov discharsres into the condenser over nint^ 




„^ DRiP 



igS Maxims and Instructions^ 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 

tenths of the heat it contained when leaving the boiler. This 
can be best utilized by exlimist feed wafer heaters, for the use of 
live steam heaters represents no saving in fuel, as all the heat 
imparted to the feed water by their use comes directly from the 
boiler. The purpose for which they are used is to elevate the 
temperature of the feed water above the boiling point, so as to 
precipitate the sulphate of lime and other scale forming sub- 
stances, and prevent them from entering the boiler. Neither 
does the heat in the feed water introduced by an injector repre- 
sent saving, as it comes from the boiler and was generated by 
the fuel. 

It is important to note these two statements: 1, That neither 
live steam feed water heaters, nor 2, injectors save the heat 
from the escaping steam. 

It is also well to remember tLat it requires a pound of zvater 
to absorb 1.146 heat units, and that this quantity of heat is 
distributed through the whole quantity of water, and as a 
pound of steam is the same as a pound of water, it may be 
understood that at 212° each pound of exhaust steam contains 
1,146 heat anits; ten pounds of steam contain 11,460 heat 
units distributed through the mass, etc. : thus, to explain still 
further; 

To evaporate water into steam, it must first be heated to the 
boiliug point, and then sufficient heat still further added to 
change it from the liquid to the gaseous state, or steam. Take 
one pound of water at 32 degrees and heat it to the boiling 
point, it will have received 212° — 3-^° = 180 heat units. 
A heat unit being the amount of heat necessary to raise one 
pound of water through one degree at its greatest density. To 
convert it into steam after it has been raised to the boiling 
point, requires the addition of 966 heat units, which are called 
latent, as they cannot be detected by the thermometer. This 
/nakes 180+966=1146 heat units, which is the total heat con- 
tained in one pound of tvater made into steam at the atmos- 
pheric pressure. And at atmospheric density the volume of 
this steam is equal to 26.86 cubic feet, and this amount of 
steam contains 1,146 units of heat, distributed througnout the 
whole quantity, while the temperature at any given point at 



Maxims and Instructions. Tgg 



FEED WATER HEATERS, 
which the thermometer may be inserted is 212 degrees. If two 
pounds of water be evaporated, making a volume of 52.72 
cubic feet, then the number of heat units present would be 
doubled, while the temperature would still remain at 212, the 
same as with one pound. 

If by utilizing the heat that would otherwise go to waste, the 
temperature of the feed water is raised 125 degrees, the saving 
would be tWs of the total amount of heat required for its evap- 
oration, or aOout 11 per cent. Thus it can be seen the percen- 
tage of saving depends upon the initial temperature of the feed 
water, and the pressure at which it is evaporated. 

For example, a boiler carrying steam at 100 pounds pressure 
has the temperature of the feed water raised from 60 to 200 
degrees, what is the percentage of gain ? 

By referring to a table pressure of ** saturated steam,^' it will 
be seen that the total heat in steam at 100 pounds pressure is 
1185 heat units. These calculations are from 32 degrees above 
?:ero, consequently the feed must be computed likewise. 

In the first case, the heat to be supplied by the furnace is the 
total heat, less thai which the feed water contains, or 1185 — 
28=1157 heat units. In the second case it is 1185 — 168=1017 
heat units, the difference being 1157—1017=140, which repre- 
sents a saving of j^, or about 12 per cent. 

Where feed water is heated no more than 20 degrees above 
its normal temperature the gain effected cannot amount to 
more than 2^, not sufi&cient to pay for the introduction and 
maintenance of a feed water heating device, no matter how 
simple, but if the temperature of the water can be increased 60 
degrees the gain will be in the neighborhood of 5^. To make 
feed water heating practical and economical it would be neces- 
sary to increase the temperature of the water about 180 degrees 
at least, and to do this, using the exhaust from a non-condens- 
ing engine without back pressure, would require such a capacity 
o"^ heater as would give fully 10 square feet of heating surface 
to ^-ach horse power of work developed, and to raise the tem- 
perature above this would require a certain amount of baa 
pressure or an increased capacity of heater, so that the subiect 



200 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 

resolves itself into a question of large capacity of heater, or a 
higher temperature of the exhaust steam, which could only be 
obtained through a given amount of back pressure. 

In the same way has been calculated the following table, 
showing percentages of saving of fuel by heating feed-water to 
various temperatures by exhaust steam, otherwise waste: 

Percentage of saving. {Steam at 60 pounds gauge pressure.) 





Initial Temperature of Water (Fahrenheit). 


33 Deg. 
2.39 


40 Deg. 

1.71 


60 Deg. 


1 1 

60 Deg. 70 Deg. | 


80 Deg. 


90 Deg. 


60 


9.86 


• • • • • • 


• • < • 






80 


4.09 


3.43 


2.59 


1.74 


0.88 ' 






lOO 


5.79 


5.14 


4.32 


3.49 1 


2.64 1 


1.77 


.90 


120 


7.50 


6.85 


6.05 


5.23 1 


4.40 


3.55 


i 2.68 


J 40 


9.^0 


8.57 


7.77 


6.97 , 


6.15 


5.32 


1 4.47 


160 


10.00 


10.28 


9.50 


8.72 1 


7.91 


7.09 


6.20 


180 


12.60 


12.00 


n.23 


10.46 


9.68 


8.87 


8.06 


;d00 


14.36 


13.71 


13.00 


12.20 1 


11.43 


10.65 


1 9.85 


220 


16.00 


15.42 


14.70 


14.00 ] 


L3.19 


12.33 


1 11.64 


1 100 Deg. 

1 


120 Deg. 


140 Deg. 


160 Deg. 1 


80 Deg. 


200 Deg 


'• 


60 
















80 
















100 


• • • • • 




. • • • • 










120 


1.80 















140 


3.61 


1.84 












160 


5.42 


3.67 


1.87 










180 


7.23 


5.52 


3.75 


1.91 









200 


9.03 


7.36 


5.G2 


3.82 


1.96 






220 


10.84 


a. 20 


7.50 


5.73 

1 [ 


3.93 


1.98 





A good feed- water heater of adequate proportions should 
readily raise the temperature of feed-water up to 200° Fahr., 
and, as is seen by inspection of the table, thus effect a saving of 
fuel, ranging from 14.3 per cent, to 9.03 per cent., according 
as the atmospheric or normal temperature of the water varies 
from 32° Fahr. in the height of winter, to 100° Fahr. in the 
height of summer. 



Maxims and Instructions, 201 



POINTS RELATING TO FEED WATER HEATERS. 

The percentage of saving which may be obtained from tb 
use of exhaust steam for heating the feed water^ with which the 
boiler is supplied, will depend upon the temperature to whicl 
the water is raised, and this, in turn, will depend upon the 
length of time that the water remains under the influence ol 
the exhaust steam. This should be as long as possible, anc 
unless a sufficient am(Uint of heating surface is employed in tbf 
heater best results cannot be expected. 

It does not necessarily require all the exhaust steam — or the 
whole volume of waste steam passing from the engine to bring 
the feed water up to the temperature desired, and the larger 
the heating appliance the smaller proporticm is needed — hence 
heaters are best made with two exits nicely proportioned to 
avoid back pressure and at the same time utilize enough of the 
exhaust to heat the feed water. 

An impression prevails among many who are running a con- 
denser on their engine that a feed water heater can not be used 
in connection with it ; large numbers of heaters running on 
condensing engines with results as follows : the feed water is 
delivered to the boiler at a temperature of 150° to 160° Fahr., 
depending on the vacuum: the higher the vacuum the less the 
heat in the feed water. 

A heater applied to a condensing engine generally increases 
the vacuum one to two inches. 

When cold water is used for the feed water, the saving in 
fuel by the use of the heater is from 7 to 14 per cent. 

When feed water is taken from the hot well, it will save 7 to 
8 per cent. 

Where all the steam generated by a boiler is used in the 
engine and the exhaust passed through a heater it is found by 
actual experiment, where iron tubes are used in the heater, that 
approximately ten square feet of heating surface will be required 
for each 30 lbs. of water supplied to the boiler at a temperature 
of 200 degrees Fahr. 

Ten square feet of heating surface in the feed water h.ea,ter 
also represents one horse power. 



202 Maxims and Instrtutions. 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS. 

The following table giyee the capacity of cisterns for each 
twelye inches in depth i 

Diameter, Gallons, 

26 feet • 3671 

20 ** 2349 

16 •« 1321 

U " 1150 

13 «• ..., 992 

U ** 846 

11 " 710 

10 " 687 

• •• 475 

8 ** , 376 

7 *• 287 

6i«' 247 

6 " 211 

6 «« 147 

4i" 119 

4 " 94 

3 " 53 

2\** 86 

2 '* 28 

Supposing it was required to find the weight of the water in 
any cistern or tank; it can be ascertained by multiplying the 
number of gallons by the weight of one gallon, which is 8J 
pounds, 8.333. For instance, taking the largest cistern in the 
above table containing 3G71 gallons: 3671x8.33=30579.43 
pounds. 

The table above gives the capacities of round cisterns or tanks. 
If the cistern is rectangular the number of gallons and weight 
of water are found by multiplying the dimensions of the cistern 
to get the cubical contents. For instance, for a cistern or tank 
96 inches long, 72 inches wide, and 48 inches deep, the formula 
would be: 96x72x48-33 1,776 cubic inches. 

As a gallon contains 231 cubic inches ; 331,776 divided by 
231 gives 1,436 gallons, which multiplied by 8.33 will give the 
weig-ht of water in the cistern. 



Maxims and Instructions. 20j 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS. 

For round cisterns or tanks, the rule is: Area of bottom on 
inside multiplied by the height, equals cubical capacity. For 
instance, taking the last tank or cistern in the table: Area of 
24 inches (diameter) is 452.39, which multiplied by Vi inches 
(height) gives 5427.6 cubic inches, and this divided by 231 
cubic inches in a gallon gives 23 gallons. 

Supposing the tank to be 24 inches deep instead of 12 
inches, the result would be, of course, twice the number of 
gallons. 

Rule for Obtaining Contents of a Barrel in Gallons. 

Take diameter at bung, then square it, double it, then add 
square of head diameter; multiply this sum by length of cask, 
and that product by .2618 which will give volume in cubic 
inches; this, divided by 231, will give result in gallons. 



WATER METERS. 

Water meters, or measurers (apparatus for the measurement 
of water;, are constructed upon two general principles: 1, an 
arrangement called an ^^inferential meter'* made to divert a 
certain proportion of the water passing in the main pipe and 
by measuring accurately the small stream diverted, to infer y or 
estimate the larger quantity; 2, the positive meter; rotary 
piston meters are of the latter class and the form usually found 
in connection with steam plants. They are constructed on the 
positive displacement principle, and have only one working 
part — a hard rubber rolling piston — rendering it almost, if not 
entirely, exempt from liability to derangement. It measures 
equally well on all sized openings, whether the pressure be 
small or great; and its piston, being perfectly balanced, is 
almost frictionless in its operation. 

Constructed of composition (gun-metal) and hard rubber, it 
is not liable to corrosion. An ingenious stuffing-box insures at 
all times a perfectly dry and legible dial, or the registering 



20^^ 



Maxims and Instructions, 



WATER METERS. 

mechanism which is made of a combination of metals especially 
chosen for durability and wear, and inclosed in a case of gun- 
metal. 

Fig. 99 is a perspective view 
of the meter, showing the in- 
dex on the top. It is showt 
here as when placed in position. 
The proper threads at the inlet 
and outlet make it easy of 
attachment to the supply and 
discharge pipes. 

The hard rubber piston (the 
only working part of the Me- 
ter) is made wdth sj^indle for 
moving the lever communicat- 
ing with the intermediate gear 
by which the dial is moved. 




Fig. 99. 



The water, through the continuous movement of the piston, 
passes through the meter in an unbroken stream, in the same 
quantity as with the pipe to which it is attached when the 
opening in the meter equals that of the service pipe; the ^">pa.- 
ratus is noiseless and practically without essential wear 

• ''Points'^ Relatin^g to Water Meters. 

In setting a meter in position let it be plumb, and properly 
secured to remain so. It should be well protected from frost. 

If used in connection with a steam boiler, or under any 
other conditions where it is exposed to a back pressure of steam 
or hot water, it must be protected by a check valve, placed 
between the outlet of the meter and the vessel it supjilies. 

It is absolutely necessary to blow out the supply pipe before 
setting a new meter, so that if there be any accumulation of 
sand, gravel, etc., in it, the same may be expelled, and thus 
prevented from entering the meter. Avoid using red lead in 
making joints. It is liable to work into the meter and cause 
much annoyance by clogging the piston. 



Majiiin:i ana inscrucuo/is. 



WATER METEKS. 

This engraving. Fig. ICO, shows the counter of the Meter. 

It registers cubic feet— one cubic foot being TiVo U. S. gallons 
ijA is read in the same way as the counters of gas meters. 




Fig. 100. 

The following example and directions may ae ot .-iervir-f^ u) 
those unacquainted with the method • 

If a pointer be between two figures, the smallest one in-is* 
alwttvs be taken. When the pointer is so near a tigure thar ^\ 
Fceras ti) indicate that fignre excictly, look at the dial \^v \ 
below it in number, and if the pointer there has passed 0, thcQ 
the count should be re ad for thi:t figure. Let it be su pposed 
that the pointers stand as in the above engraving, tliey tJ;eB 
read 28,187 cubic feet. The tigures are emitted fr;:m the cial 
marked ''ON-e," because they represent but tenths of one cnbic 
foot, and hence are uaimportanc. From dial marked " 10/^ 
we get T; from the next marivcd *' 100," we get 8; from tht 
next marked '^,000/' we gjt the figure I: fr -m the next 
marked '' 10,000," the figui'e h\ from the next marked 
000," the fiorure 2.. 



lUO 



The Fish Trap used in c<mnect!on with water meters is an 
apparatus (as its nnme denotes] for holding back fishes, etc. 



2o6 Maxims and Instructions, 



THE STEAM BOILER INJECTOR. 

For safety sake, every boiler ought to have two feeds in order 
to avoid accidents when one of them gets out of order, and one 
of these should be an injector. 

This consists in its most simple form, of a steam nozzle, the 
end of which extends somewhat into the second nozzle, called 
the combining or suction nozzle ; this connects with or rather 
terminates in a third nozzle or tube, termed the ^' furcer." At 
the end of the combining tuhc, and before entering the forcer, 
is an opening connecting the interior of the nozzle at this point 
with the surrounding area. This area is connected with th(5 
outside air by a check valve, opening outward in the automatic 
injectors, and by a valve termed the overflow valve. 

The operation of the injector is based on the fact, first de- 
monstrated by Gifford, that the motion imparted by a jet of 
steam to a surrounding column of water is sufficient to force it 
into the boiler from which the steam was taken, and, indeed, 
into a boiler working at a higher pressure. The steam escaping 
from under pressure has, in fact, a much higher velocity than 
water would have under the same pressure and condition. The 
rate of speed at which steam — taking it at an average boiU'X* 
pressure of sixty pounds — travels when discharged into th'i! 
atmosphere, is about 1,700 feet per second. When discharged 
with the full velocity developed by the boiler pressure through 
a pipe, say an inch in diameter, the steam encounters the Tvater 
in the combining chamber. It is immediately condensed and 
its bulk will be reduced say 1,000 times, but its velocity remains 
practically undiminished. Uniting with the body of water in 
the combining tube, it imparts to it a large share of its speed, 
and the body of water thus set in motion, operating agamst a 
com])aratively small area of boiler pressure, is able to overcome 
it and pass into the boiler. The weight of the water to which 
steam imparts its velocity gives it a momentum that is greater 
in the small area in which its force is exerted than the boiler 
pressure, although its force has actually been derived from the 
boiler pressure itself. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE STEAM INJECTOR. 



20^ 



The following cat 101 represents the outline of one of the 
best of a large number of injectors upon the market, from 
which the operation of injectors may be illustrated. 




S. Steam jet. V. Suction jet. C-D. Combining and delivery tube. 

R. Ring or auxiliary check. P. Overflow valve. O. Steam plug. 

M. Steam valve and stem. N. Packing nut. K. Steam, valve 
handle. X. Overflow cap. 

Fig. 101. 

The steam enters from above, the flow being regulated by the 
handle K. The steam passes through the tube S and expands 
in the tube Y, where it meets the water coming from the suc- 
tion pipe. The condensation takes place in the tubes V and C, 
and a jet of water is delivered through the forcer tube D to the 
boiler. Connection passages are made to the chamber surround- 
ing the tubes C, D, and to the end of tube V. If the pressure 
in this surrounding chamber becomes greater than that of the 
atmosphere, the check valve P is lifted and the contents are 
discharged through the overflow. 

So long as the pressure in this chamber is atmospheric, the 
check valve P remains closed, and all the contents must be dis 
chorged through the tube D. 



2o8 Maxims and Instructions. 



THE STEAM INJECTOR. 

There are three distinct types of live steam injectors, the 
'"simple fixed nozzle/' the '^adjustable nozzle/' and the 
'^double/' The first has one steam and one water nozzle 
which are fixed in position but are so proportioned as to yield a 
good result. There is a steam pressure for every instrument of 
this type at which it will give a maximum delivery, greater 
than the maximum delivery for any other steam pressure either 
higher or lower. The second type has but one set of nozzles, 
but they can be so adjusted relative to each other as to produce 
the best results throughout a long range of action; that is to 
say, it so adjusts itself that its maximum delivery continually 
increases with the increase of steam pressure. 

The double injector makes use of two sets of nozzles, the 
'" lifter'' and "'forcer. " The lifter draws the water from the 
reservoir and delivers it to the forcer, which sends it into the 
boiler. All double injectors are fixed nozzle. 

All injectors are similar in their operation. They are de- 
signed to bring a jet of live steam from the boiler in contact 
with a jet of water so as to cause it to flow continuously in the 
direction followed by the steam, the velocity of which it in 
part assumes, back into the boiler and against its own pressure. 

As a thermodynamical machine, the injector is nearly perfect, 
since all the heat received by it is returned to the boiler, except 
such a very small part as may be lost by radiation; consequent- 
ly its thermal efficiency should be in every case nearly 100 per 
cent. On the other hand, because of the fnct that its heat 
energy is principally used in warming up the cold water as it 
enters the injector, its mechanical efficiency, or work done in 
lifting water, compared with the heat expended, is very low. 

The action of the injector is as follows : JSteam being turned 
on, it rushes with great velocity through the steam Lo::zle iwXd 
and through the combining tube. This action induces a flow 
of air from the suction pipe, which is connected to the combm 
ing tube, with the result that a more or less perfect vacuum is 
formed, thus inducing a flow of water. Aft. r tlie vrater com- 
mences to flow to the injector it reciives motion from the jet o^ 
steam ; it absorbs heat from the steam and finally condenses it. 



Maxims and Instrtictions. 2og 



THE STEAM OJEOTOR. 

ind tbereai'ter moves ou into the forcer tube simply as a stream 
Df water, at a low velocity compared witli that of the steam. 
A.t the beginning of the forcer tube it is subjected only to 
itmospheric pressure, but from this point the pressure increases 
^nd the water moves forward at diminished velocity. 

'* Points" Kelatii^g to the 1i!^"jector. 

In nine cases out nf ten, where the injector fails to do good 
service, it will be either because of its improper treatment or 
location, or because too much is expected of it. The experience 
of thoroughly competent engineers establishes the fact that in 
almost every instance in which a reliable boiler feed is required, 
an injector can be found to do the work, provided proper care 
is exercised in its selection. 

The exhaust steam injector is a type different from any oi 
the above-named, in fchat it uses the exhaust steam from a non 
condensing engine. Exhaust steam has fourteen and seven 
tenths (14.7) pounds of work, and the steam entering the 
injector is condensed and the water forced into the boiler upon 
*.he same general principle as in all injectors. 

The exhaust stea.in Injector would be still more extensively 
ased \\^qi:q it not for -d practical objection which has arisen- vS 
carries over into the boiler the waste oil of the steam cylinder. 

Some injectors are called by special names by their makers, 
such as ejectors and inspirators, but the term injectors is the 
general name covering the principle upon which all the devices 
act. 

The injector can be, and sometimes is, used as a pump to 
raise water from one level to another. It has been used as an 
air compressor, and also for receiving the exhaust from a steam 
engine, taking the place in that case of both condenser and 
air pump. 

The injector nozzles are tubes, with ends rounded to receive 
and deliver the fluids with the least possible loss by friction 
and eddies. 

Double injectors are those in which the delivery from one 
injector is made the supply of a second, and they will handle 
water at a somewhat higher temperature than single ones with 
fixed nozzles. 



2IO Maxims and Instructions. 



POINTS RELATING TO THE INJECTOR. 

The motive force of the injector is found in the heat received 
from the steam. The steam is condensed and surrenders its 
latent heat and some of its sensible heat. The energy so given 
up by each pound of steam amounts to about 900 thermal units, 
each of which is equivalent to a mechanical force of 778 foot 
pounds. This would be sufficient to raise a great many pounds 
of water against a very great pressure could it be so applied, 
but a large portion of it Is used simply to heat the water 
raised by the injector. 

The above explanation will apply to every injector in the 
market, but ingenious modifications of the prmci])les of con- 
struction have been devised in order to meet a variety of re- 
quirements. 

That the condensation of the steam is necessary to complete 
the process will be evident, for if the steam were not condensed 
m the combinmg chamber, it would remam a light body and, 
though moving at high speed, would have a Jow degree of 
energy. 

Certain injectors will not work well when the steam pressure 
is too high. In order to work at all the injector must condense 
the steam which flows into the combining tube. Therefore, 
when the steam pressure is too high, and as a consequence 
the heat is very great, it is difficult to secure complete conden- 
sation; so that for high pressure of steam good results can only 
be obtained with cold water. It would be well when the feed 
water is too warm to permit the injector to work well, to reduce 
the pressure, and consequently the temperature of the steam 
supplied to the injector, as low pressure steam condenses much 
easier, and consequently can be employed with better result. 
Throttling the steam supplied by means of stop valves will often 
answer well in this case. The steam should not be cold or it 
will not contain heat units enough to allow it to condense into 
a cross section small enough to be driven into the boiler. This 
is the reason why exhaust injectors fail to work when the 
exhaust steam is very cold. It also explains why such injectors 
w^ork well when a little live steam is admitted into the exhaust 
sufficient to heat it above a temperature of 212*'. 



Maxims and Instructionju 2ji 



POINTS RELATING TO THE INJECTOR. 

Leaks affect injectors the same as pumps, and in addition 
the accumulation of lime and other mineral deposits in the jets 
stops the free flowing of the water. The heat of the steam is 
the usual cause of the deposits, and whore this is excessive it 
would be well to discard the injector and feed with the pump. 

The efficient working of the injector depends materially upon 
the size of the jet which should be left as the manufacturer 
makes it; hence in repairs and cleaning a scraper or file should 
not be used. 

For cleaning injectors, where the jets have become scaled, 
use a solution of one part muriatic acid to from nine to twelve 
parts of water. Allov/ the tubes to remain in the acid until the 
scale is dissolved or is so soft as to wash out readily. 

The lifting attachment, as applied to any injector, is simply 
a steam jet pump. It is combined with the injector proper and 
is operated by a portion of the steam admitted to the instru- 
ment. Nearly all the successful injectors on the market are 
made with these attachments, and will raise water about 1^5 
feet if required, from a well or tank below the boiler level. 

Where an injector is required to work at different pressures 
it must be so constructed that the space between the receiving 
tube and the combining tube can be varied in size. As a rule 
this is accomplished by making both combining and receiving 
tubes conical in form and arranging the combining tube so that 
it can be moved to or from the receiving tube, and the water 
space thereby enlarged or contracted at will. The adjustment 
of the space between the two tubes by hand is a matter of some 
difficulty, however; at least it takes more time and patience 
than the average engineer has to devote to it, and the majority 
of the injectors in use are therefore made automatic in their 
regulation. 

The injector is not an economical device, but it is simple 
and convenient, it occupies but a small amount of space, is not 
expensive and is free from severe strains on its durability ; 
moreover, where a number of boilers are used in one establish- 
ment, it is very convenient to have the feeding arrangements 
separate, so that each boiler is a complete generating system in 
itself and independent of its neighbors. 



!.( 



212 Alaxims ana l7LStrucctork^ 



LAWS OF HEAT. 

Heat is a word freely used, yet difficult todeliiie. The word 
heat" IS commonly used in two senses: (1) to express the 
sensation of warmth; (2) the state of things in bodies which 
causes that sensation. The expression herein must be taken in 
the latter sense. 

Heat is transmitted in three ways — by conduction, as when 
the end of a short rod of iron is placed in a tire, and the oppo- 
site end becomes w^armed - this is conducted heat; by convection 
(means of currents), such as the warming of a mass of water in 
a boiler, furnace, or saucepan; and by radiation, as that dif- 
fused from a piece of hot metal or an open fire. Radiant heat 
is transmitted, like sound or light, in straight lines in every 
direction, and its intensity diminishes inyersely as the square 
of the distance from its center or point of radiation. Suppose 
the distance from the center of radiation to be 1, 'I, 3 and 4 
yards, the surface covered by heat rays w^ill increase 1 , 4, 9 and 
]6 square feet; the intensity of heat will diminish 1, \, 1-9, 
and 1-16. and so on in like proportions, until the heat becomes 
absorbed, or its source of supply stopped. 

Whenever a difference in temperature exists, either in solids 
or liquids that come in contact with or in close proximity to 
each other, there is a tendency for the temperature to become 
equalized; if water at 100° be poured into a vessel containing 
an equal quantity of water at 50°, the tendency will be for the 
whole to assume a temperature of 75°; and suppose the tem- 
perature of the surrounding air be 30°, the cooling process will 
continue until the water and the surrounding' air become nearly 
equal, the temperature of the air being increased in proportion 
as that of the water is decreased. 

The heat generated by a fire under the boiler is transmitted 
to the water inside the boiler, when the difference in the speci- 
fic gravities, or, in other words, the cold water in the pipes 
being heavier than that in the boiler sinks and forces the lighter 
hot water upward. This heat is radiated from the pipes, 
>^hich are good conductors of heat to the air in the room, and 
raises it to the required temperature. U'hat which absorbs heal 



Maxima and Instructions, 2ij 



LAWS OF HEAT. 

rapidly, and parts with it rapidly, is called a good conductor, 
and that which is slow to receiye heat, and parts with it slowly, 
is termed a bad conductor. 

The following tables of conductivity, and of the radiating 
properties of various materials, may be of service: 

CONDUCTINa POW^R OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. — DESPRTIZ. 

Material. Conductivity. 

Gold 100 

Silver 97 

Copper 89 

Brass 75 

Cast iron , 56 

Wrought iron 37 

Zinc ... 86 

Tin , 30 

Lead ^ 18 

Marble , 2.4 

Fireclay 1.1 

Water 0. 9 

Radiating Power of Various Substances. — Leslie 

Radiating 
Material. Power. 

Lampblack... 100 

Water 100 

Writing paper 98 

Glass 90 

Tissue paper , 88 

Ice 85 

Wrought lead 45 

Mercury 20 

Polished lead , 19 

Polished iron 15 

Gold, silver . 12 

Copper, tin .... 12 

From the above tables, it will be seen that water, being an 
excellent radiator, and of groat specific heat, and iron a 
good conductor, these qualities, together with the small cost of 
the materials, combine to render them efficient, economic and 
convenient for the transmission and distribution of artificial 
heat. 



2 1 if. Maxims and Instructions 



LAWS OF HEAT. 

By adopting certain standards we are enabled to define, com 
pare and calculate so as to arrive at definite results, hence the 
adoption of a standard unit of heat, unit of power, unit of 
work, etc. 

The standard unit of heat is the amount necessary to raise 
the temperature of one pound of water at 32° Fahr. one degree, 
I. e,y from 32" to 33°. 

Specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to raise, the 
temperature of a solid or liquid body a certain number of 
degrees; water is adopted as the unit or standard of comparison. 
The heat necessary to raise one pound of water one degree, 
will raise one pound of mercury about 30 degrees, and one 
pound of lead about 32 degrees. 

Table of the Specific Heat of Equal Weights op Various 

Substances. 

Specific 
Solid bodies. Beat. 

Wood (fir and pine) 0.650 

** (oak) 0.570 

Ice 0.504 

Coal 0.280 

Charcoal (animal) 0.260 

'* (vegetable) 0.241 

Iron (cast) 0.241 

Coke 0.201 

Limestone 0.200 

Glass 0.195 

Steel (hard).. , 0.117 

'* (soft) 0.116 

Iron (wrought) 0.111 

Zinc 0.095 

Copper (annealed) , 0.094 

" (cold hammered) 0.093 

Tin 0.056 

Lead 0.031 

Liquids. 
Water .1.000 

Alcohol o 0.158 

Acid (pyroligneous) 0.590 

Ether 0.520 

Acid (acetic) 0.509 

Oil (oil ve) 0. 809 

Mercury .0.033 



iviaxzms and Instructions, 21^ 



LAWS OF HEAT. 

Qases. 

Hydrogen...... 3.409 

Vapor of alcohol .0. 547 

Steam 0.480 

Carbonic oxide. 0.245 

Nitrogen 0. 243 

Oxygen 0.217 

A tmospheric air 0.237 

Carbonic acid 0.202 



THE STEAM PUMP. 

It is diflScult to overestimate the 

importance, in connection with a 

steam plant, of the appliance 

which supplies water for the b >il- 

er, not only, bnt a hundred othei' 

uses. Upon the steady operation 

of the pump depends the safety 

and comfort of the engineer, owner 

and employee, and indirectly of 

^* ' the success of the business with 

which the "plant" is connected. Hence the necessity of 

acquiring complete knowledge of the operation of a device so 

important. 

Pumps now raise, convey and deliver water, beer, molasses, 
acids, oils, melted lead. Pumps also handle, among the gases, 
air, ammonia, lighting gas, and oxygen. Pumps are also used 
to increase or decrease the pressure of a fluid. 

Pumps are made in many ways, and defined as rope, chain, 
diaphram, jet, centrifugal, rotary, oscillating, cylinder. 

Cylinder pumps are of two classes, single acting and double 
acting. In single acting — in effect is single ended — in double 
acting, the motion of the cylinder in one direction causes an 
inflow of water and a discharge at the same time, in the other; 
and on the return stroke the action is renewed as the discharge 
end becomes the suction end. The pump is thus double acting. 




2i6 Maxims and Instructions. 



STEAM PUMPS. 

A direct 'pressure steam pr.mp is one in which the liquid is 
pressed out by the action of steam upon its surface, without 
the intervention of a piston. A direct acting steam pump is 
an engine and pump combined. 

A cylinder or reciprocating pump is one in which the piston 
or plunger, in one direction, causes a partial vacuum, to fill 
which the water rushes in pressed by the air on its head. 

Note. — A suction valve prevents the return of this water 
on the return stroke of the piston, and a discharge valve per- 
mits the outward passage of the fluid from the pump but not 
its return thereto or to the reservoir through the suction pipe. 

The force against which the pump works is gravity or the 
attraction of the earth which prevents the water from being 
lifted. This is shown by the fact that water can be led, or 
trailed, an immense distance, limited only by the friction, by 
a pump. 

Note. — It may be noted that the difference between a fluid 
and liquid is shown in the fact that the latter can be poured 
from one vessel to another, thus: air and water are both fluids, 
but of the two water alone is liquid: air, ammonia, etc., are 
gases, while they are also fluids, i. e., they flow. 

The idea entertained by many that water is raised by suction, 
is erroneous. Water or other liquids are raised through a tube 
or hose by the pressure of the atmosphere on their surface. 
vVlien the atmosphere is removed from the tube there will be 
rso resistance to prevent the water from rising, as the water 
outside the pipe, still having the pressure of the atmosphere 
upon its surface, forces water up into the pipe, supplying the 
place of the excluded air, while the water inside the pipe ivill 
rise above the level of that outside of it proportionally to the 
extent to which it is relieved of th^ pressure of the air. 

If the first stroke of a pump reduces the pressure of the air 
in the pipe from 15 pounds on the square inch to 14 pounds, 
the water will be forced up the pipe to the distance of 2i feet, 
since a column of water an inch square and 2^ feet high is equal 



Maxims and Instructions, 21 j 

STEAM PUMPS. 

in weight to about 1 pound. Now if the second stroke of the 
pump reduces the pressure of the atmosphere in the pipe to 
13 pounds per inch, the water will rise another 2J leet \ this 
rule is uniform, and shows that the rise of the column of water 
within the pipe is equal in weis'ht to the pressure of the air 
upon the surface of the water without. 

There are pumps (Centrifugal) especially designed for pump- 
ing water mingled with mud, sand, gravel, shells, stones, coal, 
etc., but with these the engineer has but little to do, as they 
are used mostly for wrecking and drainage. 

The variety of pattern in which pumps are manufactured 
and the still greater variation in capacity forbids an attempt to 
fully illusLrate and describe further than their general prin- 
ciples, and to name the following general 

Classificatiok of Pumps. 
1st. Pumps are divided into Vertical and HorizontaL 
Vertical pumps are again divided into : 

1. Ordinary Suction or Bucket Pumps. 

2. Suction and Lift Pumps. 

3. Plunger or Force Pumps. 

4. Bucket and Plunger Pumps. 

5. Piston and Plunger Pumps. 

Horizontal Pumps are divided into : 

1. Double-acting Piston Pumps. 

2. Single-acting Plunger Pumps. 

3. Double-acting Plunger Pumps. 

4. Bucket and Plunger Pumps. 

5. Piston and Pluns^er Pamps. 



2l8 



Maxims and Instructions, 



Fig. 103. 




A — Air Chamber, 

B—Waler Cylinder Ca-p, 

C — Water Cylinder with Valves and Seals in.. 

D— Rocker Shafts, each, Long or Short. 

E — Removable Cylinders, e.ich. 

F— Water Piston aind Follower, each. 

«J— Water Piston Followers, each^ 

O — Rocker Stand. 

H — Suction Flange, threaded. 

1 — Discharge Flange, threaded. 

I — Intermediate Flanges, each. 

K — Water Cylinder Heads, each. 

I., — Concaves complete, with SruflSng Boxes, each 

M — Steam Cylinder, without Ueac^ Bonnet and 
Valve. 

N — Steatn Cylinder Foot. 

O — Cros&head Links, each. 

P — Steam Piston, complete with Rings and Fol- 
lower, each. 

inir^5ieam Piston Head. 

n— -$team Piston Follower. 

Steam Piston Rings, including Sp/ing and 
Dreakjoint . 

Q — Sidt Water Cylinder Bonnet, each. 

K — Steam Chest Bonnet, each 

S— Steam Chest Stuffing Box Glands each, 

T— Steam Slide Valve, each. 



U— Piston Rods, each. 

V — Cros- heads, each 

W — Rocker Arms, each. Long or Short, 

X— Valve Rod Links, each. Long or Shoru 

Y — Steam Valve Stem*, each 

2 — Steam Cylinder Heads, each. 

aa— Piston Rod Nuts, each 

hh — Piston Rod Stuffing Glands, each. 

ii — Water Valve Seats, each. 

jj — Rubber Valves, each. 

kk — Water Valve Stems, each. 

1 1 — Water Valve Springs, each. 

gg — Removable Cylinder Screws, each« 

b — Steam Valve Stem Forks, each., 

c — Steam Valve Stem Fork Bolt«, each;* 

e— Valve Rod Lmk Bolts, each- 

d — Rocker Arm Pins, each 

f- Crosshead Link Bolts, each, 

o^CoUar Bolts, each 

pp— Brass Steam Cylinder Drain C'ocks, eacPl* 

Water Packings, each. 

Brass Pi.-ton Rods, each 

Brass Lined Removable Cylinders, extra, eacK. 

Piston Rod Stuffing Gland Bolts, each. 

Water Cylinder Cap Bonnets, each^ 

Top Valve Caps, each 

Valve Cap Clamps, each- 



In Figs. 102 and 103 are exhibited the ontlines of tJie double 
acting steam pu^np, which is undoubtedly the pattern most 
thoroughly adapted for feeding steam boilers, as it is equipped 
for the slowest motion with less risk of stopping on a centre. 

From the drawing with reference letters may be learned the 
terms applied generally to the parts of all steam pumps : 
example : '^\" shows the water valve stems, *'K'' the water 
cylinder heads. 

It may be remarked that nearly all pump makers furnish 
valuable printed matter, giving directions as to repairs, and 
best method of using their particular pumps — especially valua- 
ble are their repair sheets in which are given cuts of '* parts" 
of the pumps, it were well for the steam user and engineer 
to request such matter from the manufacturers for the special 
pump they use. 



Maxims and Instructions. 2ig 

POINTS RELATING TO PUIMPS, 
Blow out the steam pipe thoroughly with steam before con- 
necting it to the engine ; otherwise any dirt or rubbish there 
might be in the pipe will be carried into the steam cylinder, 
and cut the valves and piston. 

Never change the valve movement of the engine end of the 
pump. If any of the working parts become loose, bent or 
broken, replace them or insert new ones, in precisely the same 
position as before. 

Keep the stuffing boxes nearly full of good packing well 
oiled, and set just tight enough to prevent leakage without 
excessive friction. 

Use good oil only, and oil the steam end just before stopping 
the pump. 

It is absolutely necessary to have a full supply of water to the 
pump. 

If possible avoid the use of valves and elbows in the suction 
pipe, and see that it is as straight as possible ; for bends, valves 
and elbows materially increase the friction of the water flowing 
into the pump. 

See that the suction pipe is not imbedded in sand or mud, 

but IS free and unobstructed. 

All the lupes leading from the source of supply to the pump 
must be air-tight, for a very small air-leak will destroy the 
vacuum, the pump will not fill properly; its motion will be 
jerky and unsteady, and the engine will be liable to breakage. 

A suction air chamber (made of a short nipple, a tee, apiece 
of pipe of a diameter not less than the suction pipe and from 
two to three feet long, and a cap, screwed upright into the suc- 
tion pipe close to the pump) is always useful ; and where the 
suction pipe is long, in high lifts, or when the pump is running 
at high speed, it is a positive necessity. 

Never take a pump apart before using it. If at any time 
subsequently the pump should act badly, always examine the 
pump end first. And if there is any obstruction in the valve, 
remove it. See that the pump is well packed, and that there 
are no cracks in pipes or pump, nor any air-leaks. 



220 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO PUMPS. 

In selecting a pump for boiler feeding it is well to have it 
plenty large enough, and also those other desirable features- 
tew parts, have no dead points or center, be quiet in operation, 
economical of steam and repairs, and positive under any press 
ure. 

Granted motion to the piston or plunger, a puirp fails because 
it leaks. There can be no other reason, and thv^ leak should be 
found and repaired. Leaky valves are common and should be 
ground. Leaky pistons are not so common, but sometimes 
occur. Eepairingis the remedy. Leaky plungers are common. 
They need re-turning. The rod must be straight as far as in 
contact with the packing. The packing around the plungers 
IS sometimes neglected too long, gets filled with dirt and sedi 
ment, and hardens and scores an otherwise perfect rod, and so 
leaks. 

The lifting capacity of a pump depends upon proper proper 
fcion of clearance in the cylinder and yalve chamber, to displac<^ 
ment of the piston and plunger. 

An injector is a sample of ^jet pump — this may either lift or 
force or both. 

The most necessary condition to the satisfactory working oi 
the steam pump is a full and steady supply of water. The pipe 
connections should in no case be smaller than the openings in 
the pump. The suction lift and delivery pipes should be as 
straight and smooth on the inside as possible. 

When the lift is high, or the suction long, a foot valve should 
be placed on the end of the suction pipe^ and the area of the 
foot valve should exceed the area of the pipe. 

The area of the steam and exhaust pipes should in all cases 
be fully as large as the nipples in the pump to which they aro 
attached. 

The distance that a pump will lift or draw water, as it is 
termed, is about 33 feet, because water of one inch area 33 feet 
weighs 14.7 pounds; but pumps must be in good order to lift 
33 feet, and. ail pipes must be air tight. Pumps will give better 
BatisfactioD lifting from 22 to 25 feet. 



Maxims and Jnstructio^is 2z 



POINTS RELATING TO PUBIPS 

in cola weather open all the cocks and drain plugs to prevent 
freezing when the pump is not in use. 

When piirchasin^: a steam pump to supply a steam boiler, one 
should be selected capable of delivering one cubic foot of watei 
per horse-})ower per hour. 

No pump, iiowever good, will lift hot water, because as soon 
as the air is expelled from the barrel of the pump the vapoi 
occupies the space, destroys the vacuum, aud interfen s with the 
supply of water. As a result of all this the pump knocks. 
When it becomes necessary to pump hot water, the pump should 
be placed below the supply, so that the water may flow into the 
valve chamber. 

The air vessel on the delivery pipe ot the steam pump shouJd 
never be less than five times tne area of ine water cylinder 

There are many things fco be considered in locating steam 
pumps, such as the source from which water is obtained, the 
point of delivery, and the quantity required in a given time ; 
whether the water is to be lifted or flows to the pump ; whether 
it is to be forced directly into the boiler, or raised into a tank 
25, 50 or 100 feet above the pump. 

The suction chamber is used to prevent pounding when the 
pump reverses and to enable the pump barrel to fill when the 
speed is high. 

Suction is the unbalanced pressure of the air which is at sea 
level 14t'o per inch, or 2096.8 per square foot. 

W^hen a valve is spoken of in connection with a pump it may 
be understood that there may be several valves dividing and 
performing the functions of one. 

A simple method of obtaining tight pump-valves consists 
simply in grooving the valve- sheets and inserting a rubber cord 
in the grooves. As the valves seat themselves the cord is com- 
pressed and forms a tight joint. An additional advantage is 
that it prevents the shock ordinarily produced by rapid closing 
and prolongs the life of the valve seat. The rubber cord when 
worn can be easily and quickly replaced. 



222 Maxims and Instructions, 



CALCULATIONS RELATING TO PUMPS. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column 
of water, multiply tlie height of the column in feet by .434. 
Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to ^ lb. 
pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary friction. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given 
quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the 
standard of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then 
extract the square root, and the product will be the diameter in 
inches of the pump cylinder. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 
100 feet of piston speed per minute. Square the diameter of 
the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: 
capacity of a 5 inch cylinder is desired. The square of the 
diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, 
the number of gallons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse ponwr necessary to elevate water to a given 
height, multiply the weight of the water elevated per minute in 
lbs. by the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an 
allowance should be added for water friction, and a further 
allowance for loss in steam cylinder, say from 20 to 30 per cent.). 

The area of the steam piston^ multiplied by the steam press 
ure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. 
The area of the water piston, multiplied by the pressure of 
water per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin ;^ii!st be 
made between the poioer and the resistance to wove the piston 
at the required speed — say from 20 to 40 per cent., according 
to speed and other conditions. 

To Und the capacity of a cylinder in gallonb. Multiplying 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give 
the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 
(which is the cubical contents of a C . 3. gallon in inches), and 
product is the capacity in gallons. 

The temperature 62° F. is the temperature of water used in 
calculating the specific gravity of bodies, with respect to the 
gravity or density of water as a basis, or as unity. 



Afaxims and Instructions. 



^23 



STEAM PUMPS. 



•;iDE SECT ION 



FRONT SECTIOW 





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0-0^)00-00 
00 0OOOO oOqoo 
0^600000 oc5qo 
060000000000 
v^ QoooooooooP 
I o;o ooooooooQO 
i Qooooooooofo 
I 00 0000000000 
i 000 00 000 o/> a 
i ooopoooooooo 

J O 0(^G.0QjD-0 00 

p 000000000000 
^ 000 Ooooo 000 /(^ 
op 000 00 0000© m 
do-o 00 o o oj>o o w. 
00 o"ot3ao-e?t5ooo 
o 0000000000 

00 OOOOOOQOOO 

00000000000 
000000000000 
o 00 00000000 
000000000000 
00000000000 
^000000000000 
I 00000000000 
I 000000000000 
I 00000000000 
i^ 0000000 00 OoO 
■^ ooooooooooO 

GO O Q O 0p_p^ O Q O v ^ 



Fig. 104. 

Important stress has been laid upon keeping all floating 
objects, gravel, etc., away from the acting parts of the pump. 
In Figo 1 04 is presented a cut of an approved strainer which 
can be removed, freed from obstruction, and replaced by simply 
slacking one bolt, the entire operation occupying one minute. 
The advantages of this strainer will oe readily apparent. 



IMPORTANT PEINOIPLES RELATING TO WATER. 



There are some underlying natural laws and other data relat- 
ing to water which evory engineer should thoroughly under- 
stand. Heat, water, steam, are the three properties with which 
he has first to deaL 



22^ Maxims ana Iiistrit^ction^s. 



IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES RELATING TO WATER. 

Weight of one cubic foot of Pure Wafer, 

At 32'' F. = 62.418 pounds. 

At 30° .1 = 62.4^5 

At 62° (Standard temperature) = 62.355 " 
At 212° -= 59.640 " 

The weight of a cubic foot of water is about 1000 ouncefc 
(exactly 998.8 ounces), at the temperature of maximum density. 

The weight of a cylindrical foot of water at 62° F. is 49 lbs. 
(nearly). The weight of a cylindrical inch is 0.4533 oz. 

There are four notable temperatures for water, namely, 

32° F., or 0° 0. ^= the freezing point under one atmosphere. 
39° .1 or 4° = the point of maximum density. 
62° or 16°. 66 = the standard temperature. 
212° or 100° = the boiling point, under one atmosphere. 

Wafer rises to the same level in the opposite arms of a 
recurved tvbe, hence water will rise in pipes as high as its 
source. 

The pressure on any particle of ivafer is proportioned to its 
depth below the snrface, and as the side pressure is equal to the 
downward pressure. 

Water at rest presses equally in all directions. This is a 
most remarkable property, the upward direction of the press- 
ure of water is equal to that pressing downwards, and the side 
pressure is also equal. 

Any quantity of ivater, however small, may be made to bal- 
ance any quantity, however great. This is calleil the Hydro- 
static Paradox, and is sometimes exemplified by pouring liquids 
into casks through long tubes inserted in the bung hi les. As 
soon as the cask is full and the ^yatcr rises in the pipe to a cer- 
tain height the cask bursts with violence. 

Water is practically v on-elastic. A pressure has been applied 
of 30,000 pounds to the square inch and the contraction has 
been found to be less tlian one-twelfth. 



JMaxtms and Instructions, 



:2^ 



POINTS RELA.TING TO WAITER. 

The surface of water at rest is horizontal. A familiar exam 
pie of this may be noted mi the fact that the water in a battery 
of boilers seeks a uniform level, no matter how much the 
cylinders may vary in size. 

A given presstire or Mow tm.pressed on any portion of a mass 
of teat er confined in a vessel is distrihnted eqnalhj through all 
parts of the mass; for examnlo' a plug forced inwards on a 
square inch of the surface of water, is suddenly communicated 
to every square inch of the vessel's surface, hovever large, and 
to every inch of the surface of any body immersed m it. 

Weight and Capacity of Different Standard Gallons 

OF Water. 



Imperial or English. 



United States 



Cubicinches 
in a Gallon. 



277.264 
231. 



Weight of a 

Gallon in 

pounds. 



10.00 

8.33111 



Gallons in a 
cubic foot. 



6.232102 
7.480519 



Weight of a cub- 
ic foot of water, 
English standard, 
62.221 lbs. Avoir- 
dupois, 



STORING AND HANDLING OF COAL. 

The best method of storing coal is a matter of economy and 
needs the attention of the engineer. 

Coal, as it comes from the mine, is in the best possible con- 
dition for burning in a furnace; its fracture is bright and clean, 
and it ought to be preserved np to thj time of using it in such 
manner as to avwid as much as possible any alteration of its 
condition so as to prevent deterioration. 

So far as actual experience goes it has been found that a 
brick building, with double walls to promote coolness, with high 
narrow slits instead of windows, with ventilating holes along 
the bottom of the walls, having a high-pitched roof with over- 
hanging eaves, and holes for ventilation well sheltered under 
the eaves, and with ventilators along the edge of the roof, is 
best suited to keep the coal in the condition most nearly 
approaching that of the freshly mined. The floor of the bmld> 



226 Maxims and Instructions. 

STORING AND HANDLING OF COAL, 
ing should be preferably paved with brick on edge or flagstones; 
the doors should be large and kept open in damp weather, and 
closed when the weather is hot. 

Some persons recommend sprinkling the coal occasionally 
during the hot weather, but it is much better to wet down the 
paving all around the building outside, and the exposed floor 
of the building, as well as the walls inside and outside, and let 
the moisture of the evaporation have its effect upon the coal. 
It will be found to be amply sufficient for the purpose. 

It has been found long since that it is better to have coal 
sheds dark, as light assists greatly in impairing the fuel. 

The best arrangement for a boiler room floor is to have a coal- 
bin, paved with stone flags, opening into the fire-room by a 
door, while the fire-room itself should be paved diagonally with 
brick, set on edge upon a concrete foundation, well rammed to 
within about three feet of the boiler front, and the remaining 
space should be floored with iron plates. 

The coal should be wheeled from the bins and dumped upon 
these plates, never on the brick floor. These plates should be 
laid on an incline of about an inch toward the boilers, and it is 
well to have a trough or gutter, of about six inches in width, 
and having a depth of about one and a half inches cast in them, 
at the edge lying nearest the boilers, so that the water from the 
gauge-cock, drip-pipes, and that from wetting down the ashes 
may run into it and drain into a proper sewer-pipe laid under 
the flooring. 



CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

A careful estimase by a Broadway Chemist of the contents 
or constituents of a ton of coal ^oresents some interesting facts, 
not familiar certainly to unscientific minds. It is found that, 
besides gas, a ton of ordinary gas coal will yield 1,500 pounds 
of ooke, twenty gallons of ammonia water and 140 pounds of 
coal tar. Now, destructive distillation of this amount of coal 
tar gives about seventy pounds of pitch, seventeen pounds of 
creosote, lourteen pounds of heavy oils, about nine and a half 



Maxims and Instructions. 22j 

< CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

pounds of naphtha yellow, six and one-third pounds of naph- 
thaline, four and three-fourth pounds of alizarine, two and a 
fourth pounds of solvent naphtha, one and a iifth pound of 
aniline, seventy-nine hundredths of a pound of toludine, forty- 
six hundredts of a pound of anthracine, and nine-tenths of a 
pound of toluches — from the last-named substance being ob- 
tained the new product, saccharine, said to be 830 times as 
sweet as the best cane sugar. 

From an engineer's standpoint the main constituents of all 
coal are carbon and hydrogen; in the natural state of coal these 
two are united and solid ; their respective characters and 
modes of entering into combustion, are however essentially 
different. The hydrogen is convertable into heat only in the 
gaseous state; the carbon, on the contrary, is combustible only 
in the solid condition. It must be borne in mind that neither 
is combustible while they are united. 

There are, however, other elements existing in coal in its 
natural state, and new ones are formed during burning or 
combustion as will be noted in the succeeding paragraphs. 

For raising steam the process of combustion consists in dis- 
entangling, letting loose or evolving the different elements 
locked up in coal; the power employed in accomplishing this is 
Tieat, The chemical results of this consumption of the fuels 
may be divided into four stages or parts. 

First stage, application of existing heat to disengage the con- 
stituent gases of the fuel. In coals this is principally mixed 
carbon and hydrogen. 

Second stage, application or employment of existing heat to 
separate the carbon from the hydrogen. 

Third stage, further employment of existing heat to increase 
the temperature of the two combustibles, carbon and hydrogen, 
until they reach the heat necessary for combination with the 
air. If this heat is not obtained, chemical union does not take 
place and the combustion is imperfect. 



228 Maxims and Instructions, 



CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

Fourth and last stage, the union of the oxygen of the air "vrith 
the carbon and hydrogen of the furnace in their proper propor- 
tions, when intense heat is generated and light is also given off 
from the ignited carbon. The temperature of the products of 
combustion at this final stage depend upon the quantity of air 
in dilution. Sir H. Davy estimates this heat as greater than 
the white heat of metals. 

In the first stages heat is absorbed, but is given out in the 
last. "When the chemical atoms of heat are not united in their 
proper proi)ortions, then carbonic oxide, mixed carbon and 
hydrogen, and other combustible gases escape invisibly, w4th a 
corresponding loss of heat from the fuel. 

When the proper union takes place, then only steam, car 
bonic acid and nitrogen, all of which are incombustible, escape. 

The principal products, therefore, of perfect combustion are: 
steam, invisible and incombustible; carbonic acid, invisible and 
incombustible. 

The products of imperfect combustion are: carbonic oxide, 
invisible but combustible; smoke, partly invisible and partly 
incombustible. 

Steam is formed from the hydrogen gas given out by the coals 
combining with its equivalent of oxygen from the air. Smoke 
is formed from the hydrogen and carbon which have not 
received their respective equivalents of ox'gen from the air, 
and thus pass off unconsumed. The color of the smoke depends 
upon the carbon passing off in its dark, powdery state. 

The heat lost is not dependent upon the amount oi car 
bon alone, but also upon the invisible but combustible gases, 
hydrogen and carbonic oxide; so that while the color may 
indicate the amount of carbcm in the smake, it does not indicate 
the amount of the heat lost ; hence, the smokeless locomotive 
burning coke may lose more heat in this way than that arising 
from the imperfect burning of coal under the stationary engine 
boiler. 



Maxims and Instructions, 22 g 



CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

A practical and familiar instance of imperfect combustion is 
exhibited when a lamp smokes and the unconsumed carbon is 
deposited all about in the form of soot. When the evolving or 
disengagement of the carbon is reduced by lowering the wick 
to meet the supply of oxygen, the carbon is all consumed and 
the smoke ceases. What takes place in a lamp also occurs in a 
furnace, so that the proper supply of air is a primary thing, 
relating to economy, both as regards its quantity and its mode 
of admission to a fire. 

The economical generation of heat is one thing, the use 
made of that heat afterwards is another. Combustion mav be 
perfect, but the absorption of heat by a boiler may be inferior. 

The chief agents operating in the furnace are carbon, hydro- 
gen and oxygen, and their union in certain proportions pro- 
duces other bodies, as water or steam, carbonic acid, besides 
others of less practical importance. 

OxYGEiT is an invisible gas, has no smell, and remains per 
manently in receptacles, unchanged by time. It can be obtained 
in an experimental quantity by heating the chlorate of potash, 
and collecting the gas given off in a bladder or jar. It is a trifle 
heavier than com_mon air, i. e.,. 1.108 times and a cubic foot at 
32° temperature weighs 1.428 ounces. It is one of the most 
abundant bodies in nature, and is combined witK many others 
in a great variety of ways. 

Carboit is one of the most interesting elementary substances 
in nature. It is combustible and forms the base of charcoal, 
and enters largely into mineral coal. It is a mineral capable of 
being reduced to a feathery powder, and is found in many dif- 
ferent forms. It is obtained by various processes: from oil 
lamps as lamp-black; from coal as coke, and from wood as 
charcoal; the mineral particles of carbon in a state of combus- 
tion render flame luminous from either gas, oil or candles. 

Carbon unites with iron to form steel, and with hydrogen to 
form the common street gas. Carbon is considered as the next 
most abundant bodv in nature to oxygen. In the furnace the 



2JO Maxims and Instructions. 

CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

carbon of the fuel unites with the oxygen of the air to produce 
heat; if the supply of air is correctly regulated, there will be 
perfect combustion, but if the supply of air be deficient, com- 
bustion will be imperfect. 

Hydrogek is an invisible gas, and the lightest known body 
in the" world, being many times lighter than oxygen. It is 
combustible and gives out much heat. In our gas establish- 
ments it is made in large quantities and combined with carbon 
for illuminating streets, shops and dwellings. It is the source 
of all common flame. When united with sulphur in coal mines 
it becomes explosive. By passing a current of steam through a 
hot iron tube partly filled with filings, hydrogen gas is given ofE 
and burns with a pale yellow flame. 

The more hydrogen, therefore, there is in the fuel, the greater 
in general is its heating power. But it must be borne in mind 
that the element of hydrogen is, nevertheless, to a greater or 
less degree neutralized by the other element, oxygen, when it is 
present as a constituent of the fuel; since the affinity of hydro 
gen for oxygen is superior to that of carbon, and the oxygen 
saturated with hydrogen is converted into steam and rises m 
this form from the fuel bed without producing heat. Thus it 
is that the more oxygen there is in the fuel the less is its power 
for developing heat by combustion. 

Nitrogen" is also an elementary body. It neither supports 
life nor combustion; it is lighter than air and has no taste or 
smell. One cubic foot at 32° temperature weighs a trifle less 
than one ounce. 

Sulphur is also an elementary body, of a yellow color, brit 
tie, does not dissolve in water, is easily melted, and inflamma- 
ble. It is also called brimstone or hurnstone, from its great 
combustibility. It bums with a blue flame, and with a peculiar, 
Buffooating odor. 

Carbonic Acid Gas is formed by the burning of sixteen 
parts of oxygen and six parts of carbon. Its specific gravity is 
1.529 ; it is fatal to life, and it also extinguishes fire. 



Maxims and Instructions, 2ji 

CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

Carbonic Oxide is a colorless, transparent, combnstible gas, 
wdich burns with, a pale blue flame, as may be seen at times on 
opening a locomotive fire-box door. Its presence in a furnace 
is evidence of imperfect combustion from a deficient supply of 
air, as it indicates that only eight parts of oxygen instead of 
sixteen parts have united with six parts of carbon. 

Table. 

The following table exhibits the comparative amounts of 
water which can be, under perfect conditions, evaporated from 
the substances named: 

One pound burned. Water evaporated. 

Hydrogen 64. 28 

Carbon (average of several experiments), .. .14,77 

Carbonic Oxide 4.48 

Sulphur 4.18 

Alcohol 13.40 

Oil gas 22.11 

Turpentine 20.26 

The last four substances are compounds, and the last tbree 
consist almost wholly, or chiefly of carbon and hydrogen. The 
total heating power of average coal is, it may be noted to advan- 
tage, about 12.83 pounds of water upon the same conditions as 
above described. Hydrogen, it is seen, stands pre-eminently 
at the head of the list for heating power, represented by the 
evaporation of 64|^ pounds of water, whilst carbon, the next in 
order, and the staple combustible element in fuel, has only a 
heating power of 14f pounds of water. 



2^2 Maxims and IjistriLctions. 



HEAT-PROOF AND ORNAMENTAL PAINTS. 

Steam pipes, boiler fronts, smoke connections and iron 
ciiimneys are often so highly heated that the paint npon them 
burns, changes color, blisters and often flakes off. After long 
protracted use under varying circumstances, it has been found 
that a silica-graphite i)aint is well adapted to overcome these 
evils. Nothing but boiled linseed oil is required to thin the 
paint to the desired consistency for application, no dryer being 
necessary. The paint is applied in the usual manner with an 
ordinary brush. The color, of course, is black. 

Another paint, which admits of some variety in color, is 
made by mixing soapstone, in a state of fine powder, with p 
quick-drying varnish of great tenacity and hardness. This will 
give the painted object a seemingly-enameled surface, which 
is durable and not affected by heat, acids, or the action of the 
atmosphere. When applied to wood it prevents rotting, and it 
arrests disintegration when applied to stone. It is well known 
that the inside of an iron ship is much more severely affected 
by corrosion than the outside, and this paint has proven itself 
to he a most efficient protection from inside corrosion. It is 
light, of fine grain, can be tinted with suitable pigments, spreads 
easily, and takes hold of the fibre of the iron or steel quickly 
and tenaciously. 

Turpentine well mixed with black varnish also makes a good 
coating for iron smoke pipes. 

Much brighter and more pleasant appearing engine room?" 
can be made by making the surfaces white. Lime is a good 
non-conductor of heat, and it has the further quality of pro- 
tecting iron from rust, so it would appear that whitewash was 
as good a material with which to cover boiler fronts, smoke 
stacks, steam pipes, etc., as any other substance. 

To prepare whitewash for this purpose it is only necessary to 
add a little salt or glue to the water used for dissolving the 
lime, as either of these substances will make it stick readily and 
it cannot afterward be easily rubbed off \ but perhaps the best 



Maxims aruL Instructions. 



^33 



HEAT-PROOF AND ORNAMENTAL PAUnS. 

way to prepare the whitewasli would be to boil a pound of rice 
\iiitil it has become the consistency of starch, all of the solid 
particles having been broken up by boiling, and add this solu- 
tion to the solution of lime in water. 

This last preparation is also very good for outside work, for 
after it has been applied and has an opportunity to dry, no 
amount of ram will wash it off and its appearance is almost 
equal to white paint, and no amount of heat ordinarily met 
with will discolor it, although the heat of the fire box doors, 
if it was applied in such place, would give it a brownish cast of 
color. Even the brick setting of a boiler looks very much bet- 
ter when nicely whitewashed than when of its natural color, 
and if the ceiling and walls of the boiler room are also white- 
washed the effect is quite pleasing, more healthful and conduces 
greatly to cleanliness. 

Any engineer who tries this, renewing the whitewash as fre- 
quently as he would paint, will give this plan of painting pipes 
and boiler front the preference over th« use of any kind of 
black paint. 




Fig. 105. 



PRESSURE REOORDma GAFGB. 



This device is an ingenious mechanism 
actuated by clock work and the varying 
pressures of steam formed within the 
boiler; it records the time and the press- 
ure upon a revolving roll of paper and 
preserves an accurate account of the vary 
ing conditions which have existed within 
the boiler. 

The advantages derived from its use 
may be thus summarized : 1, It is a mon- 
itor constantly teaching the fireman to 
be careful to maintain an equal pressure 
of steam. 2, This uniform steam made 
possi ble by the use of the gauge is pro- 
ductive of the greatest possible economy. 



2J-I. Maxims and IiLstritctions. 

PRESSURE RECORDING GUAGE. 
3. The even strain maintained insures a long life to the boiler 
and a minimum of repairs. 4, It is the vindication of an 
attentive and careful fireman and allows him due credit for his 
skill and faitli fulness, which is too often ill appreciated fo 
lack of a reliable record. 

Although described as a boiler room fixture, where it is fre 
quently found in position, the proper place for this admirable 
device is in the steam user's office, thus establishing a nerve 
connection^ between engineer and owner, relating to the safety 
and economy of the poM'er-plant to their mutual j^reat advai^ 
tage. 

HORSE POWER AS APPLIED TO BOILERS. 

By general agi-«ement a borse power as appliea to steaii 
ooilers is thirty (30) pounds of feed water at a temperature of 
100 degrees Fahr. converted into steam in 1 hour at 70 pound*^ 
gauge pressure. 

The standard is all that can be asked because the same tesi 
will determine two things; first the steam making capacity oi 
the boilei and second its evaporative efficiency, which is all 
that is necessary to know in determining the commerci;ii 
rating of boilers. 

But it is a fact that, without an engine attached, there is no 
such thing as calculating the horse power of a boiler upon gen 
eral principles, A well constructed engine with a gWen press 
ure of steam upon a piston of a given area and moving at a 
certain velocity in feet per minute, will always and under all 
conditions develop the same power so long as the boiler is able 
to furnish a sufficient quantity of steam to keep up that press 
ure; and it matters not whether the steam is taken from a boile 
rated at 60 horse power or 30. 

An evidence of the fact that there ig no standard rule fo. 
calculating the horse power of boilers that can be depended 
upon, is that no two engine builders send out the same Rized 
boilers with tne engine of the same rated power. Eypenenr!*-^ 
has taught them that to furnish steam sufficient to work their 
engines up to their ratings that a certam sized boiler is required, 
and what would be considered 30 horse power by one maunfac- 



Maxims and InstrucHons. 2j^ 

HORSE POWER AS APPLIED TO BOILERS. 

turer might be considered 35 or more by another — the differ- 
ence being in the economy of the engine of using the steam, 
and not in the boiler for making it. 

Then, again, a boiler that might furnish a sufficient quantity 
of steam to work a certain type of engine up to 40 horse power 
without forcing the fire might, with another style of engine, 
in order to generate the same power and perform the same 
duty, require to be forced beyond the limits of safety or econo- 
my. Therefore, considering the varying conditions under 
which all steam boilers are placed, there is no such a thing as 
any reliable standard rule for calculating the horse power of 
boilers, but only an approximate one at the best. 

Hence it is best to select an engine of a certain power, and 
then let the same manufacturers furnish a boiler to correspond 
with it ; and so long as the two are adapted to each other and 
the boiler of sufficient capacity to work the engine up to its full 
ratings, it matters but little whether the boiler figures the same 
horse power or not. 

It has been found in practice that it is not good economy to 
carry pressure higher than eighty pounds m single cylinder 
automatic cut ofl: engines. 

As pressures increase, it becomes possible to use more 
economical engines, reducing water consumption per horse 
power per hour, thus requiring a smaller amount of heating 
surface and grate surface, that is to say, a smaller boiler and 
furnace for a given power. 

For pressure between eighty and one hundred and twenty 
pounds, the compound engine gives the best results, while for 
higher pressures triple and quadruple expansion engines are 
the most economical. 

Rule for Estimating Horse Power of Horizontal Tub- 
ular Steam Boilers. 

Find the square feet of heating surface in the shell, heads 
and tubes, and divide by 15 for the nominal horse power. 

The office of a boiler is to make steam and its real efficiency 
or the measure of its utility to the purchaser is measured 



236 



Maxims a7id Instructions, 



HORSE POWER AS APPLIED TO BOILERS. 

by the amount of water it can turn into steam in a certain 
length of time and the amount of coal it requires to do thi?< 
work. 

An ordinary 54''xl6' boiler with forty ^" tubes, 25 sq. ft. of 
grate surface and 800 sq. ft. of heating surface, in a general 
way is a 75 h. p. boiler, but good practice will get from it 100 
h. p., and the very best modern engines 200 h. p. 



BOILER SETTma. 

The method, either ill or good in which steam boilers ar« 
*' set '' or arranged in their orick work and connections, will 
vary the quantity of fuel used by as much as one-fifth ; hence 
the importance of knowing the correct principles upon which 
tbd work ghoold be dooe. 








The portion of the steam plant called **the boiler** 13 com- 
posed of two parts — the boiler and tlie furnace, and the latter 
maybe considered a part of the "setting'* as it is mainly 
composed of brick work. 

Two kinds of brick are used in boiler setting — ^the common 
brick for walls, foundatiojis and backing to the furnace, and 
so-called fire-brick, which should be laid at every point where 
the fire operates directly upon the furnace and passages. 

Eire brick should be used in all parts of the setting which 
are exposed to the hot gases. It is better, to have fire bricl> 
lining tied in with red brickwork, unless the lining is made* 

isi inches thick, when it can be built up separate from out- 
side walls. This arrangement will require very heavy walls. 
As usual, but 9 inches fire brick lining is used in the fireplace 



Maxims and Instructions, 2jf 

BOILER SETTING. 

and 4J inches behind the bridge wall. Joints in the fir© 
brick-work should be as thin as possible. 

Fig. 106 represents some of the different shapes in which 
fire brick are made to fit the side of the furnace. They are 
called by special names indicated by their peculiar form, circle- 
brick, angle-brick, jamb-brick, arch-brick, etc. The common 
fire brick are 9"x4|^"x2^'^ in size, as shown in the figure. 

The peculiar quality in fire bricks is their power to resist for 
a long time the highest temperatures without fusion; they 
should be capable of being subjected to sudden changes of tem- 
perature without injury, and they should be able to resist the 
action of melted copper or iron slag. Fire brick are cemented 
together with fire clay which is quite unlike the ordinary 
mortar which is most suitable for common brick. 

The setting as well as construction of boilers differs greatly, 
but in all the end to be sought for is a high furnace heat, with 
as little wade as possible, at the chimney end. To attain this 
there must be (1) a safiQcient thickness of wall around the fur 
nace, including the bridge, to retain as nearly as may be every 
unit of heat. (2) A due mixture of air admitted at the 
proper time and temperature to the furnace. (3) A proportion- 
ate area between the boiler and the surface of the grates for the 
proper mixing of the gases arising from combustion. (4) A cor 
rect proportion between the grate surface, the total area of the 
tubes and the height and area of the chimney. 

The principal parts and appendages of a furnace are as fol- 
lows : 

The furnace proper or fire box, being the chamber in which 
the solid constituents of the fuel and the whole or part of its 
gaseous constituents are consumed. 

The grate, which is composed of alternate bars and spaces, to 
support the fuel and to admit the air. 

The dead-plate^ that part of the bottom of the furnace which 
consists of an iron plate simply. 

The mouth piece^ through which the f ael is introduced and 
often some air. The lower side of the mouth piece is the dead 
plate. 



^J^ 



Maxims and Instructions. 



iJOILER SKTTING. 

The Hre door: Sometimes the auty of tne fire door is perfonned 
oy -i heap of fuel closing up the mouth of the furnace. 

Thb furnace front is ahove and on either side of the fire 
door. 

The ash pit. As a general rule the ash pit is level, or nearly 
so, with the floor on which the fireman stands, and as for con 
venicnt firing, the grate should not bo higher than 28 to 30 
inches, the depth of ash pit is thereby determined. 

The ash pit door is used to regulate the admission of aii 

The bridge wall. 

The combustion or flame chamber. 







; s 




L 1 




i 














J 






1 











In 



L 



Fig. 107. 



Fig. 109. 





\ 


r-j 



\^ 






i 


: • 








Fig. 108. 



Fig. 110, 



The arrangement of the space behind the bridge wall is found 
usually to be in some one of the following forms Level from 
bridge wall to back (Fig. 1 07). A square box. de]. th ranging 
from 15 inches to 6 feet (Fig. 108). A gradual rise from 
bridge to back end of boiler, where only six inches is found and 
generally circular in form (Fig. 109). A gradual slope toward 
back, leaving a distance of about 36 inches from boiler (Fig. 
110). 

The advocates of Fig. 10? claim that the oflBce of the flame 
is to get into as close contact with the bottom as possible, and 
this form compels the flame to do so. In burning soft coal this 
form is found to soot up the bottom of the boiler very badlj. 



Maxims and Instructions* 2^g 



BOILER SETTING. 

fc'ig i08 IS tolJowed more extensively than any other, tlie 
/ariations being the depth of chamber ; with depth generally 
from 36 to 40 inches. 

Fig. 109 has nothing to commend it, except in cases where 
oridge is too low. 

Fig. liO is followed a great deal and gives very good satisfao 
tion. This form allows for the theory of combustion, namely, 
the expansion of the gases after leaving bridge wall. 

Space behind the bridge wall should be enlarged, as it will 
reduce the velocity of fire gases, and thus have them give up 
more of their heat to the boiler. 

The bridge wall should not be less than 18 inches at bottom* 
but may be tapered off toward top to 9 or 13 inches. 

Setting of Watee Tube Boileks 

On page 67, Fig. 26, is exhibited a steam boiler with inclined, 
lubes. The setting in this style of boilers is as follows: 

A brick wall is laid for the front with suitable openings foi 
Uie doors of the furnace and ash pit, and protected on the out 
side by a front of cast iron, and on the inside by a lining of fire 
brick. 

At the back of the grates a bridge wall is run up to the hot 
torn of the inclined water tubes, so that the hot gases that arisf 
over it must circulate among the tubes. 

A counter wall is laid on an incline from the top of the tube^5 
^o the back of the drum. This is laid on perforated plates or 
oars and is covered with fire brick. A wall is also built at the 
lower and back end of the tubes to carry them. 

Back of the whole is the outer wall with openings for giving 
access to the tubes and smoke chambers. Side walls are raised 
to enclose the same and are arched at the top to come nearly in 
contact with the drum, which is carried partly by brackets and 
partly by the connections to the tubes. 

PoiKTS Relating to Boiler Setting. 
Long and heavy boilers are best suspended from two beams 
or girders by two or three bolts at each end. Boilers over 40 
feet long should have three or even four sets of hangers, as the 
case may require. 



2^0 Maxims and Instructions, 



BOILER SETTINrr. 

Side brackets resting on masonry may be used for sliorl 
boilers. If used on long boilers, side plates or expansion roll- 
ers should be used at one end of boiler. There ought to be not 
more than two brackets on one side, so divided that the distance 
between them is about three-fifths of the total length of the 
boiler, or the distance from ends of boiler to center of bracket 
is equal to one-fifth the length of boiler. 

The side walls in boiler-setting should not be less than 
twenty inches with a two inch air space ; the rear wall may 
vary from 12 to 16 inches according to the size of the boiler ; 
the front wall 9 inches and the bridge wall may be from 18 
to 24 and perfectly straight across the rear of the furnace. If 
the boilers are supported by side walls, the outside walls should 
be not less than 13 inches thick and have pilasters where the 
boiler is resting. 

Flues touching the boiler above the water space should be 
emphatically condemned. 

Unless the boiler walls are very heavy, they should be stayed 
by cast or wrought iron bunch stays, held together by rods at 
tops and bottoms. 

It is dangerous to have large spaces in which gases may col- 
lect for sudden ignition, producing the so-called "back draft*'' 

Connections between the rear end of the boiler and brick- 
work is best made with cast-iron plates or fire-brick, suspended, 
when boilers are suspended, as the expansion and contraction 
will destroy an arch in a short time. If resting on mud-drum 
stand, this connection can be arched, as in this case the rear 
end of boiler will remain stationary. 

If the draughts from the different boilers come in the same 
direction, or nearly so, no special provision is necessary, but if 
the draught enters from directly opposite directions a centre 
wall should be provided. 

An advantage claimed for water in the ash pit is : by the 
dropping of hot ashes and cinders from the ^rate into the water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 24^1 

BOILER SETTING. 

steam is generated, which, in passing through the hot coal 
lying on the grate, is there divided into oxygen and hydrogen 
thus helping the comhustion. 

A dry brick will absorb a pound of water, and it is the wate: 
in the mortar that causes it to set, and harden. To prevent 
this loss of the water of crystalization, and give it time to 
harden and adhere to the brick, the brick must be well saturat- 
ed with water, before they are laid. 

Whenever steam is allowed to come in contact with mortar 
or cement an injurious effect is produced. The action of the 
steam is much more rapid than that of air and water, or water 
alone, when in abundance, as the eifect of the steam in every 
case is to soften the mortar and penetrate to a greater depth 
than water could possibly do. 

The distance between the rear head of the boiler and brick- 
work should not be less than 12 inches. 

In setting steam boilers, allowance must be made for the 
expansion and contraction of the structure and this is usually 
done by placing rollers under the rear lug or side bearing of the 
boiler. Care should be exercised that the boiler rests are 
always in good condition so that they may move freely and not 
place the boiler in any danger of sticking and buckling. 



KiKDLIlTG A FtTKJ^^ACE FiRE. 

In kindling a coal fire in a furnace the phosphorus of a 
match inflames at so Iowa temperature (150 degrees Fahr.) 
that mere friction ignites it, and in burning (combining with 
oxygen of the air) it gives out heat enough to raise the sulphur 
of the match to the temperature of ignition (500 degrees Fahr.) 
which, combining in its turn with the oxygen of the atmos. 
phere, gives out sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the 
wood to the point of ignition (800 degrees Fahr.), and at this 
temperature the wood combines with oxygen supplied by tUt 
ail-, giving out a temperature sufiScient to raise the coal to the 



il^ 



Maxims and Jnstrucnons. 



KIKDLma A FURNACE FURE 

poinL 01 ]gnition (1000 degrees Fahr.), and the coal then ouin 
bines with the free oxygen of the air, the ensuing temperature 
m the furnace varying, according to circumstances, from 3000 
degrees to 4000 degrees Fahr. Thus we see that the ignition 
of the coal is the last of a series of progressive steps, each 
increasing in temperature. 

And in each step it will be noti d that a combination of 
oxygen is the essential connecting link and that the oxygen is 
supplied in each instance at the same avcrafjc temperature — this 
fact contains a "point'' relating to supplying furnaces with so 
oalled ♦♦hot air " 

Sawdust Furnace. 

Referring also to i)age 33 for information 
relating to the burning of sawdust and 
shavings S, S. Ingham, in the Stationary 
Engineer, says upon this important matter: 
" Regarding a furnace for burning saw- 
dust, I submit the accompanying cuts. I 
have built numbers of these oven furnaces for burnmg this 
fuel in the south, and all have given excellent results. The 
dimensions are for 60" X 16' return tubular {^" tubes) boiler 
with stack 50 per cent, greater area tlian the flues; a good 
draft is necessary. '^ It will be understood that the upper cut 
is designed to show end view of the furnace whose side is shown 
in sectional view at the bottom of the page. 





Maxims and Instructions, 2^j 



GAS PIPE. 



r^^'^^^ 

tf^ 



Fig. 111. 




Fig. 113. 



2^^f Maxims and Instruct ions. 



PIPES AISTD PIPING 

Wext m importance after the skill necessary for the stcaru 
generator and the engine, is the proper arranp^ement and care 
and management of the pipes and valves belonging to a steam 
plant. 

It is the first thing an engineer does in taking charge of a 
new place, to ascertain the exact course and operation of the 
water, steam, drain and other pipes. 

Examiners foi licensing marine and land engineers base their 
questions much more to ascertain the applicant's knowledge of 
piping than is genera.lly known; hence the importance of the 
" points '* in the succeeding pages relating to this subject. 

Pipes are used for yery many purposes in connection with 
the boiler room, and of course vary in size, in material and in 
strength, according to the purposes for which they are designed. 
There are pipes for conveying and delivering illuminating gas; 
pipes for conveying and delivering drinking water, and for fire 
purposes; pipes for draining and carrying off sewage and sur 
face water; pipes for delivering hot water under high pressure, 
for heating purposes and power; pipes for delivering live steam 
under pressure, for heating purposes and power; pipes for 
delivering compressed air, for purposes of power and ventilar 
tion; pipes for conveying mineral oils, etc. 

In Figs. Ill, 112 113 and 114 are given approximate sizes of 
gas pipe and boiler tubes, taken from the catalogue of one of 
the oldest steamfitting establishments in the country. It will 
be observed that the size of gas pipe is computed from the 
internal diameter, while boiler tubes are estimated from the 
outside: thus, 3 in. gas pipe has an external diameter of 3^ 
inches, while 3 in. boiler tubes have an outside diameter of 3 
inches only. It may be noted that boiler-tubes are made much 
more accurately as to size than gas pipe; this is especially true 
of the outside surfaces which are much smoother in one casf* 
tban in the other. 



Maxims and Inslruclions, 



^45 



BOILER TUBES. 




Fig. 113, 




Fig. 114. 



246 



Maxims and Instructions. 



SUEFACES AND CAPACITIES OF PIPES. 




Pipe manufactured from double thick iron is called X-strong 
pipe, and pipe made double the thickness of X-strong is known 
as X X-strong pipe. Both X-strong and XX-strong pipe are 
furnished plain ends — no threads, unless specially ordered. 

The table *' Data relating to iron pipe " will bo found espec- 
ially useful to the engineer and steam fitter. The size of pipes 
referred to in the table range from \ to 10 inches in diameter. 
In the successive columns are given the figures for the follow 
mg important information: 

1. Inside diameter of each size. 

2. Outside diameter of each size. 

3. External circumference of each size. 
4. Length of pipe per square foot of outside surface. 
5. Internal area of each size. 

6. External area of each size. 
7. Length of pipe containing one cubic foot. 
8. Weight per foot of length of pipes. 

9. Number of threads per inch of screw, 
10. Contents in gallons (U. S. measure) per foot. 
11. Weight of water per foot of length. 



I 



MaxzTfis and Instructions, 2^'/ 

DATA 

RELATIiq^G TO IeOK PiPB. 



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00000000^-1'^^CO'^<»QOO'^C5<;DCOO 

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<^^'^^lOiOcolOCDcocoo5'^?5c>ocoo5?>•co(^^'— toa 

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tH W (?< rh «0 O C<J JO OS "^ TjH »0 00 CO C5 



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i^*j o •» •, ,;.. 

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fl^ © S *>'OiG<?40cricoT-i';o<:Dcocs<:ocoOJ>-rHioci'rj^O 

feOo ^ 03»<:Or-iCO(?«rHG<?a5^00i»OrHi>»^00050"^0 

pjp© fl *-< 1-H CVS (Ji CO ♦T iO iO t* Oi O G<8 -^ O «>• O CO t^ O CO 

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05 - - 






"^fl? a rHrHT-<i-H©if(3sfC0TH'^IOlOC0i>00CiO 



<P i. . » 






♦The Standard U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches. 



24S 



Maxims and Tnsiructtons. 



PIPES AND PIPING. 
The division of process in the manufacture of pipe, takes 
place at 1|- inch, 1:^ inch and smaller sizes being called butt- 
welded pipe, and 1-J inch and larger sizes being known as lap- 
welded pipe ; this rule holds good for standard, X-strong and 
XX-strong. 

JOLISTTS OF PIPES AISTD FITTINGS. 

The accompanying illustrations represent certain joints, 

couplings and connections used in steam and hot water heating 

systems. 

For many years in the matter of pipe joints there has been 

little change. The cast-iron hub and spigot joint. Fig. 115, 

caulked with iron borings, ia 
probably the oldest kind of joint. 
This is still generally adopted in 
hot water heating of a certain 
class, and was formerly used with 
low-pressure steam. A fairly 
regular smooth internal service 
is obtained, and once made tight 
is very durable. Cast-iron flanged 
pipes have also been a long time 
in use. These joints are made 
with a wrought-iron ring gasket, 
v^rapped closely with yam. Fig. 
116, which is sometimes dipped 
in a mixture of red and white 
lead. It is placed between the 
flanges, it being of such a diame- 
ter as to fit within the bolts by 
which the joint was screwed up 
and a nest or iron joint, B B, 
caulked outside the annular gas- 
ket between the faces of the 
flanges. 

The next step in cast-iron 
flange pipe joints was the facing 
Fig. 116. or turning up of the flanges and 

the use of a gasket of rubber, copper, paper or cement, with 




Hg. 115. 




Maxims and Instructions. 



H9 



PIPES AND PIPING. 



bolts for drawing the faces to- 
gether. These joints for cast-iron 
pipes have not been changed ex- 
cepting for some classes of work 
where a lip and recess. Fig. 117, j 
formed on opposite flanges, which 
makes the internal surfaces- 
smooth and aid in preventing 
the gaskets from being blown out. 
The introduction of wrought 
iron welded pipes has diminished 
the use of cast-iron pipes for 
many purposes, especially in 




Fig. 117. 




Fig. 118. 



heating apparatus and other pipe systems* Its advantages are 
lightness, the ease with which various lengths can be obtained 
and its strength. Inwrought-iron pipe work the general prac- 
tice in making joints between pipes is a wrought-iron coup- 
ling. Fig. 118, with tapered 
threads at both ends. The 
pipes do not meet at their ends, 
and a recess of about J inch or 
more long by the depth of the 
thickness of the pipes is left at 
every pipe end. A similar 
tapered thread is used in con- 
necting the cast-iron fittings, 
elbows, tees, etc., Fig. 119, to the 
pipe, and a large recess is neces- 
sary in each fitting to allow for 
the tapping of the threads. Thus 
the inside diameter of the fitting 
is larger by ^ inch than the oux- 
side diameter of the pipe, and 
the internal projection of the 
thickness of the pipe and that of 
the thread of tha) fitting increases 
materially the fiiotioa due to the 
interior surfaces of pipe and Fig. 120. 




2^0 



Maxims and Inst^ructums. 




Fig. 121 



PIPES AND PIPING 

fitting. This class of joint requires care iti the tapping ot the 
fittings and in the cutting of tapered threads on the pipes; 

much trouble is caused by an 
inaccurately cut thread, as it 
may throw a line of pipes sev 
era! inches out of place and 
put fittings and joints undei 
undue and irregular strams. 

The ris-ht and left threaded 
nipple, Fig. 119, is used as a 
finishing connection joint and 
between fittings. Space equal 
to the length of the two threads 
is required between the two 
fittings to be connected m ordei 
to enter the nipple, and one 
or both fittings should be free 
to move in a straight line when 
the nipple is being screwed up. 
To make up this joint time 
and care are necessary. The 
Fig. 122. right threaded end on nipple 

shoud be first firmly screwed with the tongs or wrench into the 
right threaded end of fitting, then slacked out and screwed up 
again by hand until tiglit, when it is screwed back by hand, at 
the same time counting the number of threads it has entered 
by hand. The same is done with the left threaded end of 
nipple and fitting. If the right and left threads of nipple 
have counted the same number of threads, each thread, when 
making the joint up, should enter the fittings at the same 
time if possible, and particular care must be taken tliat the 
fittings are exactly opposite, to facilitate catching on, prevent 
crossing threads, and that no irregular strain comes on the 
nipple while being screwed up. 

In screwing up these nipples the coupling has to be turned 
with flats on the external surface to fit an internal wrench : 
in such cases the thread on nipple has one continuous 
taper. 




Maxims and Instructions, 



251 



PIPES AND PIPING. 

These special couplings are marked with ribs on the out- 
side to distinguish them. Fig. 120 represents another joint 
in wrought-iron piping known as the ^* union'' composed of 
three pieces of the washer. Unions are also made with ground 
joints, and the washer dispensed with. Radiator valves are 
now generally connected by them, but if the hole in the radia- 
tor is not tapped accurately, the union when drawn up will 
not be tight, or if tight, the valve will not be straight. 

Fig. 121 shows right and left threaded nipple connecting 
elbow and tee with wrought-iron pipeSo 

The flange union, Fig. 122, is another joint generally used 
on wrought-iron pipes above 4 or 5 inches in diameter in mak- 
ing connections to valves, etc., and on smaller pipes in posi- 
tions where is is a convenient joint. This joint consists of two 
circular cast-iron flanges with the requisite number of holes for 
bolts, and central hole tapped tapered to receive thread of pipe. 
The abutting faces of the flanges are generally turned and the 
holding bolts fitted into the holes. 

STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. 





Fig. 124. 

The heating by means of pipes through' 
which are conveyed hot water and steam 
is a science by itself and yet one claiming 
some degree of familiarity by all engi- 
neers, steam users, and architects. 

In practice it requires a knowledge of 

Fig. 123. steam, air and temperatures, of pressure 

and supply; a familiarity with heat and heating surfaces and 

with all contrivances, appliances and devices that enter into the 



2^2 Maxims and fiistrtictions, 

STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING, 
warming and ventilation of buildings. So long as factories, 
public and private buildings are erected, so long will warming 
and ventilation keep progress with steam engineering and 
remain a part of tlie general mechanical science required of the 
supervisory and practical engineer- 
In what is called the system of open circulation, a supply 
main conveys the steam to the radiating surfaces, whence a 
return main conducts the condensed water either into an open 
tank for feeding the loiter, or into a drain to run to waste, the 
boiler being fed from some other source; the system of what is 
called closed circulation is carried out either with separate sup- 
ply and return mains, both of which extend to the furthest 
distance to which the heat has to be distributed, or else with a 
aingle main, which answers at once for both the supply and the 
return, either with or without a longitudinal partition inside it 
for separating the outward current of steam supply from the 
return current of condensed water. 

In either case suitable traps have to be provided on the return 
main, /or preserving the steam pressure luithin the supply main 
and radiators. These two systems, in any of their modifica- 
tions, may also be combined, as is most generally done m any 
extensive warming apparatus. 

The system of closed circulation requires the boiler to be 
placed so low as will allow all the return pipes to drain freely 
back to it above its water-level. This condition has been mod- 
ified mechanically by the automatic '' trap,'' a device frequently 
employed for lifting from a lower level, part or all of the con- 
densed water, and delivering it into the boiler; it is, in fact, a 
displacement pump. 

The same result has been attained by draining into a closed 
tank, placed low enough to accommodate all the return pipes, 
and made strong enough to stand the full boiler pressure witb 
safety, and tlien employing a steam pump, either reciprocating 
or centrif ul, to raise the water from this tank to the proper 
level for enabling it to flow back into the boiler, the whole of 
the circulation being closed from communication with the 
atmosphere. 



Maxims and histructions. 



253 



STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. 






Fig 135 



Fig. 126. 



iJ'ie. XSi. 



There are two systems of steam heating, known as the direct 
and the indirect system. 

Direct radiating surfaces embrace all heaters placed within a 
room or building to warm the air, and are not directly connec- 
ted with a system of ventilation. 

Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces placed out 
side the rooms to be heated, and can only be used in connection 
with some system of yentilation. 

For warming by direct radiation, the radiators usually con- 
sist of coils, composed of f-mch and 1-inch steam 2:)ipes, which 
are arranged in parallel lines and are coupled to branch tees or 
heads. In a few exceptional cases, radiators of peculiar shapes 
are specially constructed, In all cases the coils must haye 
either vertical or horizontal elbows of moderate length, for 
allowing each pipe to expand separately and freely. Sometimes 
short lengths of pipe are coupled by return-bends, doubling 
backwards and forwards in se\'eral replications one above 
another, and forming what are called *' return-bend coils,'' and 
when several of these sections are connected by branch tees 
into a compact mass of tubing, the whole is known as a ^ * box 
coil.'' 

Steam and Hot Water heating have long been acknowledged 
as altogether most practical and economical in every way — and 
their universal adoption in all the better class of buildings 
throughout the country is positive proof of their superiority. 



254 



Maxims and Instructions. 



STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. 




Fig. 12b 



Fig. 129 



130, 



The heat from steam is almost exactly indentical with thai 
from hot water, and few can distinguish between the two sys 
tems when properly erected . 

They are both healthful, economical and satisfactory methods 
of warming. They give uo gap, dust nor smoke ; are automat- 
ically regulated, and theref )re allow of an even and constant 
temperature throughout the house, whatever be the condition 
of the weather outside. 

The circulation of the steam througn the warming pipes i^ 
effected in an almost unlimited variety of ways, and the cause 
producing the circulation throughout the pipes of the warming 
apparatus is solely the difference of pressure which results from 
the more or less rapid condensation of the steam in contact with 
the radiating surfaces, 

A partial vacuum is tormed cy this difference oi pressure 
withm the radiating portions of the apparatus, and the column 
of steam or of water equivalent to this diminution of pressure, 
constitutes the effective h.ad producing the flow of steam from 
the boiler, at the same time th.e return current of condensed 
water is determined by the doAvnward inclination of the pipes 
for the return course. 



Points Relating to fc>TEAM Heating 

No two pipes should discharge into a T from opposite direc- 
tions, thus retarding: the motion of both or one of the returning 
currents. This is called '* butting" and is one of the most 
\exatious things to encounter in pipe fitting. 



Maxims and Instructions 



255 



POUNPTS KJEDLATING TO STJElAJM HEATING, 





Fig. 131 r ^a- -'^^' ^g- -^''• 

All steam piped rooms should be frequently dusted, cleaned 
and kept free frum accumulation of inflammable material. 

The use of the air valve is as follows : In generating steam 
from cold water all the free air is liberated and driven off into 
the pipe, with the air left in them, all of which is forced up 
to the highest point of the coils or radiators, and compressed 
equal to the steam pressure following it. Now, by placing a 
valve or vent at the return end of the pieces to be heated, the 
air will be driven out by the compression. Why the vent is 
placed at the return is, that the momentum of the steam, it 
being the lightest body, will pass in the direction of it, falling 
down into the return as it condenses, thus liberating the air. 
Otherwise, should the vent not work, and the air is left in the 
radiator, it will act as an air spring, and the contents of the 
pipes left stationary will be the result ; no circulation, no heat; 
and the greater steam pressure put on, the greater the chances 
are of not getting any heat ; and thus a little device, with an 
opening no larger than a fine needle, will start what a ton of 
pressure would not do in its absence. 

If the drip and supply pipes are large there is very little 
danger of freezing, provided suitable precautions are taken to 
leave the pipes clear. They should be blown through, when 
left, and the steam valve should be closed. There should also 
be a free chance for air to escape in all systems of piping. 

No rule can be given relating to capacity for heating pipes 
and radiators which do not require to be largely modified by 
surroundings. 



2^6 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

The field of steam heating would seem to be limitless — in one 
public building it required recently 480,000 dollars to meet the 
expenditures in this single line. As an example of warming on 
an extensive scale may be taken a large ofiBlce in New York, of 
which the following are the particulars : 

Total number of rooms, including halls and vaults. 286 

Total area of floor surface. .... sq. ft. 137,370 

Total volume of rooms cub. ft. 1,923,590 



A second example is furnished by the State Lunatic Asylum 
at Indianapolis : 

Length of frontage of building, more than. 2,000 lin. ft. 

Total volume of rooms 2,574,084 cub. ft. 

r indirect radiating sur- 

Warming ! face.... 23,296 

Apparatus j Direct 10,804 

L Total 34,100 sq. ft. 

Boilers ^ Grate area .' 180 sq. ft. 



i 



Heating surface 5,863 sq. ft. 



The '^overhead'' system of heating with steam pipes has 
several advantages. 1. The pipes are entirely out of the way 
2. They do not become covered with odds and ends of unused 
materials. 3. If they leak the drip fixes the exact location of 
place needed to be repaired. 4. The room occupied overhead 
cannot be well otherwise utilized, hence in shops the system 
has proved efficient. 

But for offices or store rooms the overhead system is not 
approved of owing to the heat beating down upon the occu- 
pants and causing headache. 

When overhead heating pipes are used, they should not be 
hung too near the ceiling. If the room be a high one, it is 
better to hang them below, rather than above, the level of the 
belts running across the room, and they should not be less 
than three or four feet from the wall. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



257 



STEAM HEATING. 

It is important to protect all wood work or other inflammable 
material around steam pipes from immediate contact with them, 

_ especially where 



pipes pass 
through floors 
and partitions. 
xi metal thimble 
should be placed 
around the steam 
pipe, and firmly 
fastened on both 
sides of the floor, 
in such a way as 
to leave an air 
space around the 
steam pipe. 




Fig. 134. 



For indirect radiating surfaces, the box coils are the forms 
most used. The chambers or casings for containing them are 
made either of brickwork, or often of galvanized sheet-iron of 
No. 26 gauge, with folded joints. The coils are suspended 
freely within the chambers, which are themselves attached 
to the walls containing the air inlet flues. Besides coils of 
wrought iron tubes, cast-iron tablets or hollow slabs, having 
vertical surfaces with projecting studs or ribs, have been ex- 
tensively used for the radiating surfaces. 

As the amoun-t of heat given off from the radiator cannot be 
satisfactorily controlled by throttling the steam supply, it is 
usual to divide all radiators into sections, each of which can be 
shut off from the supply and return mains, separately from the 
rest of the sections. This method of regulation applies to 
radiators for indirect heating as well as for direct. 

Vertical pipe coils, constitute a distinctive form of radiator 
now largely used. In these a number of short upright 1-inch 
tubes, from two feet 8 inches to 2 feet 10 inches long, are 
screwed into a hollow cast iron base or box ; and are either con- 
nected together in pairs by return-bends at their upper ends, 
or else each tube stands singly with its upper end closed, and 



2^8 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

having a hoop iron partition extending up inside it from the 
bottom to nearly the top. The supply of steam is admitted 
into the bottom casting ; and the steam on entering, being 
lighter than the air, ascends through one leg of each siphon 
pipe and descends through the other, while the condensed 
water trickles down either leg, and with it the displaced air 
sinks also into the bottom box. For getting rid of the air, a 
trap is ]3rovided, having an outlet controlled by metallic rods ; 
as soon as all the air has escaped and the rods become heated 
by the presence of unmixed steam, their expansion closes the 
outlet. 

A thorough drainage of steam pipes will effectually prevent 
cracking and pounding noises. 

The windward side of buildings require more radiating 
surface than does the sheltered side. 

When floor radiators are used, tl^eir location should be deter- 
mined by circumstances ; the best situations are usually near 
the walls of the room, in front of the windows. The cold air, 
which always creates an indraft aroand the window frames, is 
thus, to some extent, warmed as it passes over the the radiators, 
and also assists in the general circulation. 

Water of condensation will freeze quicker than water that 
has not been e\"aporated, for the reason that it has parted with 
all its air and is therefore solid. 

Whatever the size of the circulating pipes, the supply and 
drip pipes should be large, to insure good circulation ; the drip 
pipes especially so. This is also the more necessary when the 
pipes are exposed, or when there is danger of freezing after the 
steam is shut off. 

It is important to see that no blisters or ragged pipes go into 
the returns, and also to make sure that the ends are not 
'^'burred in'' with a dull pipe cutter wheel so as to form 
a place of lodgment for loose matter in the pipe to stop 
against. 



Jl^.^AUHo and Instructions, 



259 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 




Fig. 135. 



Fig. 186. 



Fig. 137. 



Experiments recently made on the strength of bent pipes 
have developed some things not commonly known, or at least 
not recognized, that is, the strain on the inside of the angles, 
due to the effort of the yipcs to straighten themselves under 
pressure. The problem is one of considerable intricacy, resolv 
able, however, by computation, and is a good one for practice. 
fn the experiment referred to, a copper pipe of 6f in. bore, A 
m. thick, was used. The angle was 90 degrees, and the legs 
about 16 in. long from the center. At a pressure of 912 pounds 
to an inch, the deflection of the pipe was nearly § m., showing 
an enormous strain on the inner side, in addition to the 
pressure. 

Steam valves should be connected m such a manner that the 
^alve closes against the constant steam pressure. 

Interesting experiments show that the loss by condensation 
m carrying steam one mile is 5 per cent, of the capacity of 
the main, and a steam pressure of seventy-five pounds 
carried in five miles of mains, ending at a point one-half 
mile from the boiler house only shows jj. loss of pressure of two 
pounds. 

In steam warming it is necessary to bring the water to a 
boiling point to get any heat whatever: in hot water warming, 
: low temperature will radiate a corresponding amount of heat 



260 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

Never use a valve in putting in a low pressure apparatus if 
it is possiole to get along without it. All the valves or cocks 
that are actually required in a well-proportioned low pressure 
apparatus are, a cock to blow off the water and clean out the 
return pipes, another to turn on the feed water. Of course the 
safety valves, guage cocks, and those to shut fire regulators and 
such as are a part of the boiler, are not included in this 
*^ point." 

The most important thing in connecting the relief to return 
pipes is, that it should always be carried down below the line, 
the same as all vertical return pipes. In connecting the reliefs, 
so that the lower opening can at any time be exposed to the 
steam, there will be the difficulty of having the steam going in 
one direction, and the water in another. 

The relief pipe should ^* tap " the steam at its lowest or most 
depressed points. It should always be put in at the base of all 
steam '^risers ^' taking steam to upper floors. 

In leaving the boiler with main steam pipe, raise to a height 
that will allow of one inch fall from the boiler to every ten feet 
of running steam pipe; this is sufficient, and a greater fall or 
pitch will cause the condensed water in the pipe to make at 
times a disagreeable noise or '* gurgling." 

The flo'V pip(i should never start from the boiler in a hori- 
zontal direction, as this will cause delay and trouble in the cir- 
culation. This pipe should always start in a vertical direction, 
even if it has to proceed horizontally within a short distauce 
from the boiler. Reflection will show that the perfect appa- 
ratus is one that carries the flow pipe in a direct vertical line to 
the cylinder or tank; this is never, or but rarely possible, but 
skill and ingenuity should be exercised to carry the pipes as 
nearly as possible in this direction. 

The flow of steam ought not to be fast enough to prevent the 
water of condensation from returning freely. All the circulat- 
ing pipes should be lowest at the discharge end, and the incli 
nation ^iven them ^^hould not be less than one foot in tift% 



Maxims and Instructions. 



26i 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATINO 





' ■'- -"i^R — ' 






Kg. 139. 



rhe general rule is to lay the maiD 
pipes from tlie boiler so that the pipe will 
drain from the boiler. Where this is 
done it is necessary to have a drip just 
before the steam enters the circulation. 
This drip is connected to a trap, or, if 
Fig. 141, the condensed water is returned to the 

boiler, the drip is arranged accordingly. 

But it is the best practice to lay the main pipe with the low- 
est part at the boiler, so that the drip will take care of itself, 
and not require an extra trap, nor interfere with the return 
circulation. 

When steam is turned into cold pipes the water of condensa- 
tion gets cold after running a short distance, and if it has to go 
through a small drip pipe full of frost it will probably be frozen. 
Then, unless it is followed up with a pail of hot water, the 
whole arrangement will be frozen and a great many bursted 
pipes will result. Whenever turning steam on in a system of 
very cold pipes, only one room should be taken at a time, and 
a pail of hot water should be handy so that if the pipe becomes 
obstructed it can he thawed immediately without damage. 

When pipes become extensively frozen there is nothing to do 
but take them out and put in new ones. 



262 



Maxims and Instructions, 




Fig. 142. 



Fig. 143. 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 
The manner in which a 
temperature too low to start 
rapid combustion in wood in 
steam pipes, operates in 
originating a fire is by first 
reducing the oxide of iron 
(rust) to a metalHc condi- 
tion. This is possible only 
under certain external con- 
ditions, among them a dry 
atmosphere. Just as soon 
as the air is recharged with 
moisture, the reduced iron is 
liable to regain, at a bound, 
its lost oxTjgen, and in doing so become red hot. This is the 
heat that sets the already tindered wood or paper ablaze. 

Where there is no rust there is no danger from fire with a 
less than scorching temperature in the pipe or flue. Hence 
the necessity of keeping steam or hot water fittings in good 
order. 

The indirect system of heating is the most expensive to put 
in ; as to the cost of providing nearly double the heating surface 
in the coils must be added the cost of suitable air boxes, pipes 
and registers. For a large installation, this is a serious matter, 
although for office warming the advantages gained on the score 
of healthfnlness and greater efficiency of employees much more 
than counterbalance the extra expense. 

One horse power of boiler will approximately heat 6,000 to 
10,000 cubic feet in shops, mills and factories — dwellings 
require only one horse power for from 10,000 to 20,000 cubic 
feet. 

From seven to ten square feet of radiating surface can be 
heated from one square foot of boiler surface, i. e., the heating 
surface of the boiler and each horse power of boiler will heat 
240 to 360 feet of 1-inch pipe. 



Maxims and Instructions. 26j 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEAT. 

The profession most nearly related to that of steam engineers 
is the workiDg steam fitters' occupation. Strictly speaking, the 
engineer should produce the steam, and it is the steam fitters' 
place to fix up all the steam pipes and make all the necessary 
connections: but where the steam plants are small, the engineer 
may be steam fitter also: hence the introduction in this work 
of these '' Points " which are necessary to be known for the 
proper care and management of any system of steam or hot 
water heating. 

The care and patience, the mental strain and not infrequently 
the physical torture incident to fitting up a complicated pipe 
system cannot adequately be set forth in words. 

It is stated to be a fact, that in high pressure hot water heat- 
ing the water frequently becomes red hot, pressures of 1000 to 
1200 pounds per square inch being reached, and when the cir- 
culation of the system is defective the pipe becomes visibly red 
in the dark. 

Pipes under work benches should be avoided, unless there is 
an opening at the back to permit the escape of the heated air, 
which would otherwise come out at the front. 

When both exhaust and live steam are used for heating, 
many engineers prefer to use independent lines of pipe for each,' 
rather than run the risk of interference and waste caused by 
admitting exhaust and live steam into the same system at the 
same time. Nevertheless, the advantages gained by being able 
to increase the heating power of a system in extremely cold 
weather by utilizmg the entire radiating surface for high pres- 
sure steam, are so great that it is probably better so to arrange 
the system of pipes and connections that this can be done. 

Double extra heavy pipe (XX) is used for ice and refriger- 
ating machines (see page 246), as a general rule, makers of 
this class of machinery obtain out little satisfaction in the use 
of the ordinary thread joining and use special dies with 
uniform taper—hoXh for couplings, flanges and threading the 
pipe itself. They do this to protect their reputation and 
guarantees. 



264 



Maxims and Instructions, 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

Welding toiler and other tubes, — The following is a good way 
in cases of emergency and can be done on a common forge: 

Enlarge one end of the shortest piece, and one end of the 
long piece make smaller, then telescope the two about f of an 
inch. Next get an iron shaft as large as will go into the tube 
and lay across the forge with the tube slipped over it. Bloch 
the shaft up so that the tube will hang down from the top of the 
shaft. By such an arrangement the inside of the tube will be 
smooth for a scraper. When the tube gets to a welding heat 
strike on the end of the short piece first, with a heavy hammer, 
then with a light and broad-faced hammer make the weld. 
Borax can be used to good advantage, but it is not necessary. 
The next thing is to test the tube, which can be done in the 
following manner : Drive a plug in one end of the tube, stand 
it up on that end, and fill it with water, if it does not leak the 
job is well done, if a leak exists the welding must be again 
done. 



Solid-drawn Iron Tubes : Calculated Bursting and Collapsing 

Pressures. 









BtrBSTIKS PBKSSXJBm. 


CoiXAPenrs Pbsssitbb. 


Bsteraai 




Intpmal 










Diameter 


ThlrJcneee. 


Diameter. 


Per Squar« 
Inch of 
Internal 
Surface. 


Per Square 
Inch of 

Section of 
MetaL 


Per Square 

Inch of 

External 

Surface. 


Per Square 
Inch of 

Section of 
MetaL 


lueties. 


Inch. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Tons. 


Lbs. 


Tons. 


u 


.083 


1.084 


7700 


22.4 


6500 


21.7 


If 


.083 


1.209 


6900 


22.4 


6800 


21.3 


l| 


.083 


1.334 


6200 


22.4 


5200 


31.0 


If 


.083 


1.584 


5300 


22.4 


4300 


20 3 


% 


.083 


1.834 


4500 


22.4 


3700 


19.7 


H 


.095 


2.060 


4600 


22.4 


3600 


19.0 


2i 


.109 


2.282 


4800 


22.4 


S600 


18.3 


2f 


.109 


2.532 


4400 


22.4 


3100 


17.7 


3 


.120 


2.760 


4300 


22.4 


3000 


17.0 


8i 


.134 


3.232 


4200 


22.4 


2700 


15.7 


8f 


.134 


3.482 


3900 


22.4 


2400 


15.0 


4 


.134 


3.732 


3600 


22.4 


2100 


14.3 


4i 


.134 


4,232 


3200 


22.4 


1700 


13.0 


4f 


.134 


4.482 


3000 


22.4 


1600 


12.3 


5 


.134 


4 732 


2800 


22.4 


1400 


11.7 , 


51 


.14B 


5.204 


2800 


22.4 


laoo 


10.8 


^ 




6.704 


2600 


2ft.4 


1000 


9.0 



Maxims and Instructions, 



265 



VENTILATION". 

The quartity of air for each minute for one person is from 
four to fifteen feet — and from one-half to one foot should be 
allowed for each gas jet or lamp. 

Heated air cannot be made to enter a room unless means are 
provided for permitting an equal quantity to escape, and the 
best places for such exit openings is near the floor. 

For healthful ventilation the indirect system of steam heat- 
ing is by far the best yet devised, for it not only warms the 
room, but insures perfect ventilation as well. In this system, 
the air for warming the room is introduced through registers, 
having first been heated by passing over coils of pipe or radia- 
tors suitably located in the air ducts. There is a large volume 
of pure air constantly entering the room, which must displace 
and drive out an equal quantity of impure air. This escapes 
principally around the doors and windows, so that not only is 
the ventilation effected automatically without the use of special 
devices, but all disagreeable indraft of cold air is prevented. 

One of the cheapest and best methods of ventilation is to 
have an opening near the floor, opening directly into the flue, 
or some other outlet especially constructed for it, wiili hot 
water or steam pipes in this opening. A moderate degree of 
heat in these pipes will create a draft, and draw out the bad 
air. Only a few of these pipes are necessary, and the amount 
of hot water or steam required to heat them is too small to be 
worthy of consideration. 

The use of a small gas-jet, burning continuously, in a pipe 
or shaft has been found to be a most admirable method of ven- 
tilating inside rooms, closets and similar places where foul air 
might collect if not replaced by fresh. The following table 
exhibits the result of careful experiments made by Mr. Thomas 
Fletcher, of England, with a vertical flue 6 inches in diameter 
and 12 feet high : 

Table. 



Gas Burnt per 
Hour. 


Speed of Cur- 
rent pi r 
Minute. 


Total Air Exhaus 
ted per Hour. 


Air Exhausted per 

Cubic foot of 

Gas liurut. 


Temperature at 

outlet. Normal 

62" Fahr. 


Cubic Feet. 
1 

2 
4 
8 


Feet. 
205 
245 
325 
415 


Cubic Feet. 

2,460 
2,940 
3,900 
4,980 


Cubic Feet. 

2,460 

1,470 

975 

622 


82° 

92° 
110° 
137° 



'266 



Maxims and Ins true Ho^is. 



EXHAUST STEAM HEATINQ. 




Maxims and Instructions, 26y 

VENTILATION. 

Taking the experiments as a whole, it will be seen that in a 
flue 6 inches in diameter, the maximum speed of current which 
can be obtained with economy is about 200 feet per minute ; 
and this was realized with a gas consumption of 1 cubic foot 
per hour — 1 cubic foot of gas removing 2,460 cubic feet of air. 

It should, however, not be required of any system of heating 
to more than aid in ventilation. It is the architect's or build- 
er's performance to so arrange lower and upper openings to 
drive out the bad air. 

Heating by Exhaust Steam. 

There are two methods of warming by steam heat — one with 
live steam direct from the boiler, and the other with exhaust 
steam. These two are frequently carried out in combination, 
and in fact generally so where exhaust steam is used at all for 
warming. 

In nearly all manufacturing establishments, office buildings, 
etc., the exhaust steam produced will very nearly, if not quite 
supply sufficient exhaust steam to furnish all the heat required 
for heating the building during average weather, although in 
extremely cold weather, a certain amount of live steam might 
be necessary to use in connection with the exhaust to supply 
the required amount of heat. 

A simple and convenient device operating upon the suction 
principle has been found to be most efficient. By this the 
exhaust steam is drawn almost instantly through the most 
extensive piping ; preventing condensation, freezing and ham- 
mering, after which it is condensed and purified, and fed back 
into the boiler by the means of a reciprocating pump. 

It is claimed that a given quantity of exhaust steam can be 
circulated by this vacuum system and uniformly distributed 
through double the amount of heating pipes than could be 
accomplished by the same quantity of exhaust steam when 
forced into the heating system by pressure. 

Fig. 144 is a well-tried system of heating by exhaust steam 
in which ^^7^^ represents the steam exhaust pipe, with ^'6'* 
showing back pressure valve with weight to adjust amount of 
back pressure ; '' 4'* <* 4 '' are steam supply pipes to radiators ; 
<« 5 >* <tf 5 ^? g^PQ risers ; *' 9 *' *' 9 '' are condensation return pipes 



268 



Maxims and Instructions,. 



HEATING BY EXHAUST STEAM. 

from the radiators ; "8*^ is the pressure regulating valve from 
the boilers. Fig. 144 may also be said to represent the general 
method of piping used in steam and hot water heating, which 
is difficult of illustration owing to the fact that each locality 
where it is used requires a different adaptation. 

CARE OF STEAM FITTINGS. 

Many steam fittings are lost through carelessness, particu- 
larly in taking down old work, but the great bulk are simply 
**lost'^ for lack of method in caring for them. This task 
properly falls upon the engineer, as he usually is intrusted with 
the selection and ordering of the necessary work. A great 
Baving in the bill of ** findings" can be effected by proper 
attention. 

The same systematic care exercised over the other fittings, 
tools, appliances, oil, fuel, etc., used or consumed in the en- 
gine and boiler room may be urged with equal emphasis. 

















Hand 
















mn. 
















lln. 
















l^in. 
















min. 


dbovrs 


Tees, 


Nip- 
ples, 


Pings. 


Redu- 
cers. 


R's 

and 


Unions 


2 in. 

ooui>- 
linga. 



Fig. 145. 
Fig. 145 shows a case for keeping fittings, which will enable 
one to find any particular piece without a moment's delay. In 
this admirable arrangement it will be seen that the heavy 
fittings are all at the bottom, the light ones at the top. In the 
top row of all, the one-quarter and three-eighth inch Lfctings 
are placed, being 80 small that a partition may be pat into that 



Maxims and Instructions, 2^§ 

STEAM PIPE AND BOILER COVERINGS. 

This subject relates to the radiation of lieat^ which allows a 
reference to the laws of heat and tables of radiating power of 
various substances, as set forth on pages 212, 215. 

The importance of a protection of exposed surfaces from 
radiation of heat is now undisputed, and many experiments 
have determined very closely the relative value of the various 
non-conducting substances. 

Table of the CoNDrcTii5-G Vgx^^vl of various substances. 



substance. ^"^J^S*"^' Substance r'powe?.'^ 



Blotting Paper .874 Wood, across fibre .... .83 

Eiderdown j ,314 '. Cork 1.15 

Cotton or Wool, any > ! nno Coke, pulverized I 1.29 

density S "\ India Rubber 1.37 

Hemp, Canvas .418 Wood, with fibre.... I 1.40 

Mahogany Dust I .523 Plaster of Paris , 3.86 

Wood Ashes .581 Baked Clay , 

Straw .563 Glass 



4.83 
6.6 
Charcoal Powder 636 Stom- 13.68 

By the above table may be judged the comparative value oi 
different coverings ; blotting paper with tts confined air, stand- 
ing at one end of the list, stone at the other. It should be 
noted that the less the conducting poiver the better protection 
against radiation, 

A non-conducting coating for steam pipes, etc., used for 
many years with perfect satisfaction, can be prepared by any 
steam user. It consists of a mixture of wood sawdust with 
common starch, used in a state of thick paste. If the surfaces 
to be covered are well cleaned from, all trace of grease, the 
adherence of the ]>aste °s perfect for either cast or wrought iron; 
and a thickness of 1 inch will produc ' the same effect as that 
of the most costly non-conductors. For copper pipes there 
should be used a priming coat or two of potter's clay, mixed 
thin with water and laid on with a brush. The sawdust is 
sifted to remove too large pieces, and mixed with very thin 
starch. A mixture of two-thirds of wheat starch with one-third 
of rye starch is the best for this purpose. It is the common 
practice to wind string spirally around the pipes to be treated to 



2j6 



Maxims and Instructions, 



PIPE AND BOILER COVERINGS, 
secure adhesion for the first coat, which is about l-5th of an 
inch thick. When this sets, a second and a third coat are suc- 
cessfully applied, and so on until the required thickness is 
attained. When it is all dry, two or three coats of coal tar, 
apphed with a brush, protect it from the weather. 

A very efficient covering may be made as follows: 1, wrap 
the pipe in asbestos paper — though this may be dispensed with; 
2, lay slips of wood lengthways, from 6 to 12 according to size 
of pipe — binding them in position with wire or cord; 3, around 
the framework thus constructed wrap roofing paper, fastening 
it by paste or twine. For flanged pipe, space may be left for 
access to the bolts, which space should be filled with felt. Use 
tarred paper — or paint the exterior. 

While a very efficient non-conductor, hair or wool felt has 
the disadvantage of becoming soon charred from the heat of 
steam at high pressure, and sometimes taking fire. The follow- 
ing table, prepared by Chas. E. Emory, Ph. D., shows the 
value of various substances, taking wool felt as a unit. 
Table of Relative Value of Non-Conductors. 



Nou-conductoi 



Value 



Wood Felt...., 1.000 

Mineral Woo) No» 2 1 .832 

Do. with tar 715 

Sawdust. I 680 

iVlineral Wool No. I , .678 

CharcoaL ' .633 

Pino Wood. Jicross fibre. .553 



Non-(JonductoT. 

Loam, dry and open 

Slacked Lime 

Gas House Carbon 

Asbestos 

Coal Ashes . . 

Coke in lumps 

Air space, undivided 



vaiu*^ 



.550 

.480 
470 
363 
.345 
,277 
.136 



LINEAR EXPANSION OF STEAM PIPES. 

Wrought iron is said to expand 1-150,000 of an inch for each 
degree of heat communicaxed to it; to make the calculation 
take the length of the pipe in inches, multiply it by the num- 
ber of degrees between the normal temperature it is required to 
attain when heated, and divide this by 150,000. Suppose the 
pipe is 100 feet long, and its temperature zero, and it is desired 
to use it to carry steam at 100 pounds pressure — equal to a 
temperature of 338 degrees — multiply 100 feet by 12 to reduce 
it to inches, and by 338, the difference in temperature; divide 



Maxims and Instructions. 



271 



LINEAR EXPANSION OF STEAM PIPES. 

this by 150,000, and the result will be 2.7 inches, which would 
be the amount of play that would be required, in this instance, 
in the expansion joint. 

Figs. 153 and 154 show a properly designed arrangement of 
steam connections for a battery of boilers. To the nozzles, 
risers are attached by means of flanges, and from the upper 

ends of these 
risers pipes are 
led horizontal- 
ly backwards 
into the main 
steam pipe. In 
this horizontal 
pipe, the stop 
valves, one to 
each boiler, are 
placed. These 
valves should 
have flanged 
ends as shown, 
so that they 
may be easily 
removed, if re- 
pairs become 
ne cessary, 
without dis- 
turbing any 
other portion 
of the piping. 
Unlike the en- 
graving, the 
valve C should 
be arranged in 
another posi- 
t i n : the 
stem should, 
of course, be 
Figs. 153 and 154. horizontal or 

nearlv so. in ordnr thnt tbp vqIva mn.v not trail water. 





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2'/8 Maxims and Instructions. 

LINEAR EXPANSION OF STEAM PIPES. 
By this arrangement it will be seen that the movements of 
the boilers and the piping itself are compensated for by the 
spring of the pipes. The height of the risers should never be 
less than three feet, and when there are eight or ten boilers in 
one battery, they should be, if room permits, six to eight feet 
high, and the horizontal pipes leading to main steam pipe 
should be ten or twelve feet or mora 



THE STEAM LOOP. 

This is an attachment to a steam boil^^r, designed to return 
water of condensation. It invariably consists of three parts, 
viz.: the ** riser, ^^ the "horizontal^* and the '* drop leg/^ and 
usually of pipes varying in size from three-fourth inch to two 
inches. Each part has its special and well-defined duties to 
perform, and their proportions and immediate relations decide 
and make up the capacity and strength of the system. It is, 
in fact, nothing but a simple return pipe leading from the 
scarce of condensation to the boiler, and, beyond this mere 
statement, it is hardly possible to explain it ; it has, like the 
injector and the pulsometer pump, been called a paradox. 

The range of application of the steam loop practically covers 
every requirement for the return of water of condensation. If 
used in connection with a steam engine, pump, etc., a separator 
of any simple form is connected in the steam pipe as close 
as possible to the throttle. From the bottom of the separator 
the loop is led back to the boiler, and the circulation main* 
tained by it will dry the steam before it is admitted to the 
cylinder. 

There is necessary to its operation a slight fall in tempera- 
ture at the head of the loop, which is accompanied by a corre- 
sponding fall in pressure. The water accumulating in the 
lower end of the loop next to the separator, as soon as it fills 
the diameter of pipe, is suddenly drawn or forced to the hori- 
zontal by that difference in pressure. It is immaterial how fai' 
the water has to be taken back, or how high it is to be lifted. 
There is one system now in daily operation lifting the con- 
densed water over thirty-nine feet, and another lifting it over 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



2J9 



THE STEAM LOOP, 
sixty-three feet. The strength of the system is increased by 
length and height, the only limit to its operation being the 
practicability of erecting the necessary drop leg,, the lieight of 
which depends on difference in pressures. 



HORIZONTAL 




Fig„ 155, 



Fig. 155 is an illustration of its application to a radiating 
coil. To understand the philosophy of its action, and referring 
to the illustration, let us assume that all the valves are open, 
and full boiler pressure is freely admitted throughout the 
steam pipe, coil and loop. Now, if the pressure were exactly 
uniform throughout the whole system, the water in the loop 
would stand at a on the same level as the water in the boilero 
But, as a matter of fact, the pressure is not uniform through- 
out the system, but steadily reduces from the moment of leav- 
ing the dome. This reduction in pressure is due in part to 
condensation and in part to friction, and although generally 
small is always present in some degree. The pressure may be 
intentionally reduced at the valve on the coil, and reduction 
necessarily results from condensation within the coil itself. A 
still further reduction takes place through the loop, so that the 
lowest pressure in the whole system will be found at a, the 
point in the loop furthest from the boiler, reckoned by the flow 
of steam. 



38o Maxims and Instructions, 

THE STEAM LOOP. 
Now it is known that water of condensation invariably works 
towards, and accumulates in^ a " dead end.'^ This is due to 
the fact that, as already shown, the pressure is lower at the 
*'dead end " than at any other point in the system, and, as a 
consequence, there is a constant flow, or sweep, of steam 
towards the point of least pressure, which flow continues as 
long as condensation goes on. This sweep of steam carries 
along with it all the water formed by condensation or con- 
tained in the steam, at first in the form of a thin film, swept 
along the inner surface of the loop, and afterwards, when the 
accumulation of water is sufficient, in the form of small slugs 
or pistons of water- w^hich completely fill the pipe at intervals, 
traveling rapidly towards the dead end. The action of the 
steam sweep is vastly more powerful than is usually supposed, 
and, of course, operates continuously and infallibly to deposit 
the water in the dead end as fast as accumulated. 

In practice, water will speedily be carried over by the loop 
and accumulate in the drop leg until it rises to the level h, 
which would balance the difference in pressure. As the loop 
will still continue to bring over water, it follows that as fast as 
a slug or piston of water is deposited by the steam on the top 
of the column at ^, it overbalances the equilibrium and an 
equal amount of wafer is discharged from the bottom of the 
column through the checTc valve into the boiler. 

The result of the practical operation of many systems of this 
ingenious device show advantages as follows : 

Ic Return of pure water to the boiler and saving the heat 
contained in said water o 

2„ Preserving more uniform temperatures, thus avoiding 
the dangers due to expansion and contract! oUo 

3. Prevention of loss from open drains, dri[)s, tanks, etc. 

4. Maintaining higher pressure in long lines of piping, in 
jackets, driers, etc. 

5. Enabling engines to start promptly. 

6. Saving steam systems from water, thereby reducing 
liability to accident. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



281 



BOILER MAKERS^ TOOLS AKD MACHINERY. 




Fig. 156, 



Fig. 156 represents a pair of jack 
screws. These are invaluable devices 
for use in boiler-shops, and also in 
establishments where ponderous ma- 
chinery has to be shifted or otlier- 
wise handled. 

But few machioe tools are used in 
n;aking steam boilers, and they are 
generally as follows : 

1st. — The Rolls, operated either by hand levers or power; 
used for bending the iron or steel plates into circular form. 

2d. — A wide power planer for trimming the edges of the 
sheet perfectly straight and true. 

3d. — Heavy Shears for trimming and cutting the plates. 

4th. — A Power Punch for making the rivet holes. 

5th. — A Disc for making the large holes in the tube sheets 
to receive the ends of the tubes. 

6th. — Rivet heating furnaces and frequently steam riveting 
machines. 

The hand tools needed by boiler makers are equally few, 
consisting of riveting hammers and hammers for striking the 
chisels, tongs to handle hot rivets, chipping chisels used in 
trimming the edges of plates, cape chisels for cutting off iron or 
making holes in the sheets, expanders to set the tubes, and also 
drift pins to bring the punched sheet exactly in line. 

Eig. 157 exhibits an improved pattern of the well-known 
tool — dudgeon expander. 




gfyt Maxims and Instructions, 



STEAM, 

Steam is water in a gaseous state ; the gas or vapor of water ; 
it liquifies under a pressure of 14.7 and temperature of 212° P. 

Steam is a joint production of the intermingling of water 
and heat. Water is composed of two gases which have neither 
color nor taste, and steam is made up of the same two gases 
with the addition only of that mysterious property called heat 
by which the water becomes greatly expanded and is rendered 
invisible. The French have a term for steam which seem5 
appropriate when they call it water-dust. 

This is what takes place m the formation of steam in a vessel 
containing water in free communication with the atmosphere. 
At first, a vapor is seen to rise that seems to come from the 
surface of the liquid, getting more and more dense as the water 
becomes hotter. Then a tremor of the surface is produced, 
accompanied by a peculiar noise which has been called the sing- 
ing of the liquid ; and, finally, bubbles, similar to air bubbles, 
form in that part of the vessel which is nearest to the fire, then 
rise to the surface where they burst, giving forth fresh vapor. 

The curious fact must be here noted that if water be intro- 
duced into a space entirely void of air, like a vacuum, it 
vaporizes instantaneously, no matter how hot or cold, so that 
of an apparent and fluid body there only remains an invisible 
gas like air. 

That steam is dry at high pressure is proved by an experi- 
ment which is very interesting. If a common match head is 
held in the invisible portion of the steam jet close to the nozzle, 
it at once lights, and the fact seems convincing as to complete 
dryness, as the faintest moisture would prevent ignition even 
at the highest temperature. This experiment proves dryness 
of the steam at the point of contact, but if throttling exists 
behind the jet, the steam supplied by the boiler may be in 
itself wet and dried by wire drawing. 

Dead steam is the same as exhaust steam. 

Live steam is steam which has done no work. 

Dry steam is saturated steam without any admixture of 
mechanically suspended water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 28^ 

STEAM. 

High-pressure steam is commonly understood to be steam 

used in high-pressure engines. 

Low-pressure si earn is that used at low pressure in condensing 
engines, heating apparatus, etc., at 15 lbs. to the inch or under. 

Saturated steavi is that in contact with water at the same 
temperature; saturated steam is always at its condensing point, 
which is always the boiling point of the water, with which it is 
in contact; in this it differs from superheated steam. 

Superheated steam, also called steam-gas, is steam dried with 
heat applied after it has left the boiler. 

Total heat of steayn is the same as steam heat. 

Wet steam, steam holding water mechanically suspended, the 
water being in the form of spray. 

Specific gravity of steam is . 625 as compared to air under the 
same pressure. 

The properties which make it so valuable to us are : 

1. The ease with which we can condense it. 

2. Its great expansive power. 

3. The small space in which it shrinks when it is condensed 
either in a vacuum chamber or the air. 

A cubic inch of water turned into steam at the pressure of 
the atmosphere will expand into 1,669 cubic inches. 

WATER HAMMER. 

The fact that steam piping methods have not kept pace with 
the demands of higher pressures and modern practice is evi- 
denced by the increasing number of accidents from the failure 
of pipes and fittings. 

There has not been, for the rapid increase of pressure used, a 
proportionate increase in strength of flanges, number and size 
of bolts used, and more generous provision for expansion and 
contraction. Values and fittings also require greater attention 
in their design, construction and manipulation. 



284 Maxims and Instructions. 



WATER HAMMER. 

It is well known that the presence of condensed water in 
pipes is a source of danger, but little is known of what exactly 
goes on in the pipe. We have the incompressible liquid, the 
expansive gas, and the tube with a '' dead head '' or dead end 
as it is called, or where the end of the pipe is closed. Seeing 
that the tube or pipe is capable of withstanding all the pressure 
that the steam can give, it is difficult to account for the tre- 
mendous repelling force, which is, undoubtedly, brought into 
operation in explosions or ruptures of steam pipes carrying 
what are now comparatively low pressures. 

The cause of the bursting is undoubtedly water hammer or 
water ram, which accompanies large, long steam pipes, filled 
with condensed water. 

If steam be blown into a .arge inclined pipe full of water, it 
will rise by difference of gravity to the top of the pipe, forming 
a bubble; when condensation takes place, the water below the 
bubble will rush up to fill the vacuum, giving a Mow directly 
against the side of the pipe. As the water still further recedes 
the bubble will get larger, and move farther and farther up the 
pipe, the blow each time increasing in intensity, for the reason 
that the steam has passed a larger mass of water, which is forced 
forward by the incoming steam to till the vacuum. The maxi- 
mum effect generally takes place at a *'dead end." 

In fact, under certain conditions, a more forcible blow is 
struck when the end of the pipe is open, as, for instance, when 
a pipe crowned upward is filled with water, one end being open 
and the steam introduced at the other. A bubble will in due 
time be formed at the top of the crown, when the water will 
be forced in by atmospheric pressure from one end and by steam 
pressure from the other, and the meeting of the two columns 
frequently ruptures the pipe. 

The remedy for this is simple, the pipes must be properly 
located so as to drain themselves or be drained by rightly 
located drip cocks. The drip should be the other side of the 
throttle valve, and if steam is left on over night this valve 
should be left open enough to drain out all the water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 28^ 

HAZAEDS OF THE BOILER EOOM. 

Where there is great power, there is great danger. 

When the pressure is increased, the danger is increased. 

When the pressure is increased, diligence, care and scrutiny 
should be increased. 

During the twelve years between 1879 and 1801 there were 
recorded 2,159 boiler explosions; these resulted in the death 
of 3,123 persons, auvi in more or less serious injury to 4,352 
others. Besides these there were innumerable other accidents 
during the same period, caused by other means, which empha- 
sizes the gravity of this cautionary *^ chapter of accidents." 

Every boiler constructed of riveted plate and carrying a high 
head of steam, holds in constant abeyance, through the strength 
of a disruptive shell, a force, more destructive in its escaping 
violence than burning gunpowder. To the casual observer 
there is no evidence of this; and it is only when a rupture 
takes place of such a character as to liberate on the instant the 
entire contents of tlie loiler that we get a real demonstration of 
the fact. Unfortunately a steam boiler never grows stronger, 
but deteriorates with every day's age and labor, subjected, as 
it is, to all sorts of weakening influences ; and fractures often 
occur, which, if not at once repaired, would speedily reduce 
the strength of the boiler to the point of explosion. 

In the case of a boiler we have, first, a vessel of certain 
strength, to resist strains ; and second, expansive steam and 
water contained therein. It must be plain that if the strength 
of the vessel is superior to the internal pressure there can be 
no explosion, and also, on the contrary, if we allow the pressure 
to go above the strength of the vessel, that there must be a 
rupturing and an explosion, but it will be in the weakest place 
of that vessel. 

Experiments by the most eminent men have failed to dis- 
COV8I any mysterio\i3 gas formed by boilmg water, or by any 



286 Maxims and Instructions. 

STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 

mixture of air and water. Boilers have been built for the ex- 
press purpose of trying to explode them under various condi* 
tions of high and low water, and nothing in regard to the 
sudden generation of any gas has been discovered. Again, 
disastrous explosions that have occurred have been of vessels 
that contained ho water, and were not in contact with fire, 
flame or heated air, but were supplied by steam some distance 
away. 

The destructive efforts of the vaporization attendant upon 
explosions seem to be due to the subsequent expansion of the 
steam so formed, rather than to the intensity of its pressure ; 
low or high steam alone has very little to do with boiler explo- 
sions ; nor high or low water necessarily. 

The one great cause of boiler explosion is the inability of 
the boiler to withstand the pressure to which it is subjected at 
the time, and this may be brought about by any one of the 
following causes, viz. : 

1. Bad design, in which the boiler may not be properly 
strengthened by stays and braces ; deficient water space, pre- 
venting the proper circulation of the water. 

2. Bad workmanship, caused by the punching and riveting 
being done by unskilled workmen. 

3. Bad material, blisters, lamination, and the adhesion of 
sand or cinders in the rolling of the plate. 

4. By excessive pressure, caused by the recklessness of the 
engineer, or by defective steam-gauges or inoperative safety- 
valves. 

5. Overheating of the plates, caused by shortness of water. 
When water is poured on red-hot surfaces it does not touch the 
surface, but remains in the spheroidal state at a little distance 
from it, being apparently surrounded by an atmosphere of 
steam. It assumes this state above 340°; when the tempera- 
ture falls to about 288° it touches the surface and commences 
boiling. 



Maxims and Instructions, 28 J 

STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 

6. By accumulation of scale, mud, or other deposit, which 
prevents the water gaining access to the iron. This causes the 
seams to leak, the crown-sheet to hulge or come down. 

One is unable to find any proof that boilers do generally 
explode at about starting time, nor is that statement, to the 
best of information, founded on any basis of fact, but was first 
affirmed by parties who had designed a boiler especially 
arranged to avoid that imaginary danger. 

No one supposes that inspection will absolutely prevent all 
explosions; but rigid inspection will discover defects that might 
end in explosion. 

Low water is dangerous from the fact that it leaves parts of 
the boiler to be overheated and the strength of iron rapidly 
decreases in such a case. In fact, an explosion caused by low 
water might be expected to be less disastrous than if the water 
was his/her, other conditions being equal, from the fact of there 
being less water at a high temperature ready to flash into steam 
at the moment of liberation. 

Testing new boilers under steam pressure is both dangerous 
and unwise — the hot water expansion test is just as efficient, 
less costly and safe in every respect — hence, there is no occasion 
for a steam test. A manufacturer was testing a boiler in the 
way mentioned when a rivet in a brace blew out and the con- 
tents of the boiler rushed out, striking a man in the face, and 
parboiling him from head to foot. Another who was inspect- 
ing the boiler, was struck on the head and enveloped in steam 
and water; another was also scalded from the shoulders down; 
another was injured about the arms; a fifth man was scalded 
and severely injured about the back. The apartment was so 
filled with steam that the victims could not be rescued until all 
the damage mentioned had been done to them. 

Danger from exploding steam pipes is greater than supposed. 
An inspector in a pipe works was testing a tube by means of a 
double-action hydraulic pump; the pipe suddenly burst with 



288 Maxims arcd Instructions^ 



HAZARDS OF THE BOILER ROOM. 

the pressure of 5,000 pounds to the square inch, and the water 
striking the unfortunate man on his face, he was killed on 
the spot. 

There is a tendency on the part of engineers to trust too 
implicitly in their steam gauges. These are usually the only 
resort for determining the steam pressure under which the 
boiler may be working. But the best gauges are luible to err, 
and after long use to require a readjustment. It is fortunate. 
however, that the error is usually upon the safe side of indicar 
ing more than the actual pressure. 

Any boiler that has been standing idle for a few weeks or 
months is a dangerous thing to enter, and no one should 
attempt it until it has been thoroughly ventilated by taking off 
all the man hole and hand-hole plates and throwing water into 
it. This is due to the presence of a gas which is generated 
from the refuse and mud, or scale, which, to a greater or less 
degree, remains in all boilers. Contact with hre is certain to 
result in an explosion. Not long since a locomotive was in a 
roundhouse, where it had been waiting some weeks for repairs. 
Some of the tubes were split and a man was pullmg them out. 
He had only removed one or two when, puttmg in his lamp to 
Bee what remained, there was a fearful explosion which shook 
the shop. There are many other places which are unsafe to 
enter when they have been long closed, such as wells, pits of 
any kind, and tanks. Precisely what the nature of the gas is 
no one seems to kii'wvv, but it is assuredly settled that a man 
who goes into it with a light seldom comes out unharmed- 

The gas most likely to fill idle boilers in cities is sewer gas, 
that gets in through the blow-off pipe, which is left open and 
generally connects with the sewer; hence, the connectioa with 
the sewer by the blow-off pipes should receive attention^ 

Boilers are sometimes unexpectedly emptied of their contents 
by the operation of the principle of the syphon; a boiler is so 
piped that a column of water may be so formed as to draw out 
of the boiler its entire contents. Danger ensues \S this is done 
while the boiler is beine^ tired. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



28g 




FUEL OIL. 

The long experimental use of petroleum 
or natural oil as a combustible has devel- 
opcd but one serious objection to its wide 
spread and popular adoption: that objec- 
tion arises from its liability to ignite and 
cause destruction by fire; but 

The Hazards of Fuel Oil may be 
remedied by the observance of the follow- 
ing rules adopted by a certain fire under- 
writers' association: 

** Vault to be located so that the oil it contains can burn with 
out endangering property and have a capacity sufficient to hold 
twice the entire quantity of oil the tanks within can contain. 

Location of vault to be left to the approval of the Superin 
tendent of Surveys, Distance from any property to be regu- 
lated by size of tank. 

Vaults to be underground, built of brick, sides and ends to 
be at least 16 inches thick and to be made water tight with 
hydraulic cement ; bottom to be water tight, concrete, dished 
toward centre, and inclined to one end so as to drain all over- 
flow or seepage to that end, said incline to be to the end oppo 
site to that from which the tank is to be tapped ; top to be 
supported with heavy iron I-beams, with arches of solid brick 
sprung from one beam to its neighbors, and to have at least 
twelve inches of dirt over the masonry. 

Vault to be accessible by one or more large man-holes, which, 
when not in use, are to be kept locked by a large padlock of 
three or more tumblers, key to be held by some responsible 
party. 

A trough must run from one end of the vault to the other, 
directly under each tank, and in the same direction as the tank 
or tanks. 

Tank to be of boiler iron or steel, at least 3-16 inch in thick 
ness, to be cold riveted, rivets to be not less than 3-8 inch lij 



2go Maxims and Instrucnons. 



HULES RELATING TO tJSE OF FCTEL OTL. 

diameter and not over 1 incn apart between centres; the entire 
outer surface of tank to have two good coats of coal tar or min- 
eral paint before the tank is phiced m position. 

No tank shall be over 8 feet in diameter bj 25 in length, 
nor shall any vault have over two tanks. 

When tank is set, the bottom of the tank must be 3 inches 
above tho concrete floor of the vault, and must be in saddles of 
masonry not less than twelve inches in thickness, built from 
the concrete floor of the vault, said saddles not to be more 
than 3 feet apart between centres, and laid in hydraulic 
cement, with an opening through centre for drainage. 

Tank must incline 1 inch per 10 feet in length toward the 
end from which it is to be tapped, said incline of the tank to 
be opposite to the incline at the bottom of the vault. 

The filling pipe, man-hole, telltale or indicator, pump sup 
ply connection, steam connection, overflow pipe and ventila- 
ting pipes, where they connect with tank, must be made 
petroleum tight by the use of litharge and glycerine cement. 

Flanges to make tank | inch in thickness to be riveted on 
the inside so as to furnish a satisfactory joint where connec- 
tions are made, must be used. 

Filling pipe connection must have gas-tight valve between 
the tank and hose coupling, which must be kept closed and 
locked unless the tank is being filled. Each tank must have 
ventilating pipes at least 1-J inches in diameter, one of which 
must connect with one end of the top of the tank 
and must be in the form of an inverted J, a union to be placed 
in pipe just below the bend, within which shall be placed a 
diaphragm of fine wire gauze ; the other ventilating pipe must 
be at the other end of the top of the tank and must be con- 
ducted to the inside of the smoke stack or into the open air 
at least 10 feet above the surface, so that all the gases that form 
m the tank will be constantly changed. 

Tank must have indicator to show height of oil m tank at 
all times, said indicator to be so arranged as to allow no es- 
capement of gases from tank. 



Maxims and Instructions. 2gi 



RULES RELATING TO USE Of FUEL OIL 

All pipes leading from the tank to the pump or place 01 
burning, must incline toward the tank, and have a fall of at 
least 2 feet from bottom of stand pipe to top of storage tank, 
and must be so constructed that the feed pipe from stand pipe 
to burners shall be entirely above burners, so that no pockets 
of oil can be formed in any one of the pipes between the main 
tank, stand pipe, oil pump or place of burning. 

The vault shall be air tight as near as possible, ana must 
nave two ventilating pipes of iron of 4 inches diameter, both 
inlet and outlet pipes to reach within 6 inches of the bottom 
of the vault, the outlet ventilating pipe to rise above surface 8 
feet, and the inlet ventilating pipe to nse above surface 6 
feet. 

Syphon to be arranged so as carry out any seepage or leak- 
age into the vault, and discharge same upon the ground, 
where its burning would not endanger surrounding property. 



?» 



The following are apart of the rules adopted by the German 
Government to prevent accidents in mills and factories: they 
are equally applicable %n all places ivhere steam power is used: 

*' All work on transmissions, especially the cleaning and lub 
ricating of shafts, bearings and pulleys, as well as the binding, 
lacing, shipping and unshipping of belts, must bo performed 
only by men especially instructed m or charged with such 
labors. Females and boys are no» permitted to do this work. 

The lacing, binding oi pacKing oi beltSs ii they he upon 
aither shafting or pulleys during the operation, must be strictly 
prohibited. Daring the lacing and connecting of belts, strict 
attention is to be paid to their removal from revolving partSy 
either by hanging them upon a hook fastened to the ceilino, 
or in any other practical manner ; the same applies to smaller 
belts which are occasionally unshipped and run idle,, 

While the shafts are in motion they are to be Inbricated, or 

the lubricating devices examined only when observing the fol- 
lowing rules : (1) The person performing this labor must eithei 
do it while standing upon the floor, oi I)y the use oi (^J) tii-mi^ 



2g2 Maxims and InstrMctions. 



GOVERNMENT RULES TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS, 
located stands on steps, especially constructed for the purpose, 
so as to afford a good and substantial footing for the workman; 
(3) firmly constructed sliding ladders, running on bars; (4) 
sufficiently high and strong ladders, especially constructed for 
this purpose, which by appropriate safeguards (hooks above or 
iron points below) afford security against slipping. 

All shaft bearings are to be provided with automatic lubrica- 
ting apparatus. 

Only after the engineer has given the well-understood signal, 
plainly audible in the workrooms, is the engine to be 
started. 

If any work other than lubricating and cleaning of the shaft 
ing is to be performed while the engine is standing idle, the 
engineer is to be notified of it, and in what room or place such 
work is going on, and he must then allow the engine to remain 
idle until he has been informed by proper parties that the work 
is finished. 

Plainly visible and easy accessible alarm apparatus shall be 
located at proper places in the workrooms, to be used in case 
of accident to signal to the engineer to stop the engine at 
once. 

All 'projecting wedges, keys, set-screws, nuts, grooves or other 
parts of machinery, having sharp edges, shall he substantially 
covered. 

All belts or ropes which pass from the shafting of one story 
to that of another shall be guarded by fencing or casing of 
wood, sheet-iron or wire netting four feet six inches high. 

The belts passing from shafting in the story underneath and 
actuating machinery in the room overhead, thereby passing 
through the ceiling must be enclosed with proper casing or 
netting corresponding in height from the floor to the construc- 
tion of the machine. When the construction of the machine 
does not admit of the introduction of casing, then, at least, 
the opening in the floor through which the belt or rope passes 
should be enclosed with a low casing at least four inches high 



Maxims and Instructions 2gj 



GOVERNMENT RULES TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS. 

Fixed shafts, as well as ordinary shafts, pulleys and fly- 
wheels, running at a little height above the floor, and being 
within the locality where work is performed, shall be securely 
covered." 

The most simple and efficient of all substances for fire ex- 
tinguishment is sulphur. This, by heat, absorbs oxygen and 
forms sulphurous acid, the fumes of which are much heaviei 
than the air. The quantity required would be small. Besidesi 
sulphur, which gives every satisfaction, both in its effects and 
from its low cost, we find a similar property in another active 
and cheap substance, ammonia. An automatic sulphur extin- 
guishing apparatus can be made of various forms. 

If night repairs, Sunday, or any other work which requires 
the use of artificial light (especially portable lights oi any kind) 
becomes necessary, more than one man should be employed, 
one of whom should be capable oi starting the engine or pump 
instantly in case of fire. 

In guarding against explosion it is conceded that the main 
reliance is to have the boiler made strong enough to stand both 
the regular load or any unexpected strain caused by the stop- 
page of the engine ; it is also the tendency of the times to 
proceed towards higher and higher figures in steam pressure, 
until now it is not unfrequent to see 150 lbs. to the square 
inch indicated by the gauge ; the larger the boiler, also, the 
more economically it can be run and this, as in the two cases 
before cited, requires extra precautions in building the boiler 
with great regard to strength in every part. 

The following rules posted in a certain factory are most 

excellent for their directness: 

** Wear close-fitting clothes; have a blouse or jacket to button 
close around the waist and body; have sleeves to fit arms 
closely as far up as the elbow ; never wear a coat around 
machinery ; never approach a pair of gears or pulleys from the 
driving side ; never attempt to save time by potting, or trying 
to pot on any fast-moving belts without slacking up or stopping 
entirely to do it. Never allow an inexperienced person to go 
through the mills without an attendant • never allow a woman 



2()4 



Maxims and Instructions, 



FACTORY RULES FOR PREVENTION OF ACCIDENT. 

to go through a mill, no matter how many attendants, while in 
motion ; never attempt to go through the mill in the dark, 
you may forget the exact location of some dangerous object 
and seek to avoid it, but it is still there, noiselessly waiting a 
chance to wreck you ; never allow any dangerous place to go 
inguarded ; keep your eye open while oiling; never relax youi 
dgilance for an instant, it may cost you your life. If you feel 
i gentle tug on your clothes, grab, and grab quick, anything 
you cfln cling to, and don't let go till after the clothes do/' 



iU^^^^I'O^QQ: 



i i 



m 



M 



WATER CIRCTJLATION. 

Water consists of an innumerable quantity of extremely 
minute particles called molecules. These particles have the 
property of being able to glide over, under, and to and from 
each other almost without resistance or friction. When water 
is heated in a boiler the action 
that takes place is this: As the 
heat is applied, the particles 
nearest the heated surfaces be- 
come expanded or swollen, and 
are so rendered lighter (bulk 
for bulk) than the colder parti- 
cles, they are therefore com- 
pelled to rise to the highest 
point in the boiler. 

This upward action is vividly 
shown by the illustration on 
page 242, and by Fig. 158, 
where the warmer particles are 
ascending and the cooler ones 
are descending by a process 
which is endless so long as heat 
ifl applied to the lower part of 
the containing vessel. 

The cause of circulation is the 
result of an immutable law of 
nature (the law of gravitation), 
and is so simple that with Fwr. 158 



5!^ 



i 



k 



T 



%• k % k m k 



\ 



V 



^f 



ft 



I 



•K 



4^ 




Maxims and Instructions, 2g^ 

WATER CIRCULATION, 
moderate care in its manipulation failures in arranginj2f steam 
heating apparatus are next to impossible. A very slight ex- 
perience suffices to show that a pipe taken from the top of a 
boiler and given a direct or gradual rise to the point furthest 
from the boiler, and then returned and connected into it at the 
bottom will, upon the application of heat, cause the water to 
circulate. It is not necessary that the water should boil or 
even approach boiling point, to cause circulation, as in a 
properly constructed apparatus the circulation commences soon 
after the heat is applied and. immediately the temperature is 
raised in the boiler. It is a very common error to suppose that 
the circulation commences in the flow or up pipe, whereas it is 
just the reverse. The circulation is caused, by the water in the 
return pipe and can be described as a stream of heated particles 
flowing up one pipe from the boiler and a stream of cooler par- 
ticles flowing down another pipe into the boiler; or it might 
be described as a means of automatically transporting lieated 
water from the lower to the upper parts of a building, and pro- 
viding a down flow of cold water to the boiler to be heated in 
turn. 

Those having in charge the erection of hot- water systems for 
heating buildings, will do well to remember that the circulation 
they expect depends entirely upon the expansion of particles 
when heated, and that they must avoid as much as possible 
friction, exposure of flow pipes to very low temperature, and 
frequent or numerous short bends. 

When properly arranged the action of ^'^the steam loop" is 
a very good illustration of the circulatian of hot water and 
steam, the flow is continuous, rapid and positive. 

Note. — When the steam loop is properly connected, the stop 
valve at the boiler should always be left open and full pressure 
maintained in the steam pipe over night or over Sunday. The 
loop will keep up a powerful circulation, returning all water to 
the boiler as fast as condensed. On starting up in the morn- 
ing, it is only necessary to open the waste cocks and blow out 
what little water may have condensed in the cylinders them- 
selves. The throttle may then be opened and the engine started 
with the steam as dry as if it had been running continuously. 



2q6 Maxima and /nstructzons. 



CHIMNEYS AND DRAUGHT. 

Branght, in chimneys, is caused by the difference between 
the T\'eight of the air outside and that inside the chimney. 
This difference in weight is produced by difference in heat. 

Now, heated air has a strong tendency to rise above cool air 
and a very slight difference will cause an upward flow of the 
heated particles, and the hotter the air, the brisker the flow. 

As these particles ascend it leaves a space which the cooler air 
eagerly hastens to fill; in the boiler furnace, the hot air push- 
ing its way up the chimney, is replaced through the grate bars 
with cool, fresh air. 

It is the mingling of this fresh air with the combustibles 
that produces heat, and the power of the draught is absolutely 
necessary to the reliable operation of the furnace. 

An excess of draught can be corrected by the use of a dampei 
or even by the closing of the ash pit doors, but no more 
unhappy position for an engineer can be imagined than a 
deficiency of draught. 

This lack is produced by. 1st, too little area in the chimney 
flue; 2d, by too low a chimney; 3d, by obstructions to the flow 
of the gases: 4th, by the overtopping of the chimney by adja- 
cent buildings, hills or tree tops. There are other causes of 
failure which practice develops; hence, the draught of a new 
chimney is very often an uncertain thing until every-day triaJ 
demonstrates its action. 

The draught of steam boilers and other furnaces should be 
regulated below the grate and not in the chimney. The ash 
pit door should be capable of being closed, air tight, and the 
damper in the chimney should be kept wide open at all times 
unless it is absolutely necessary to have the area of the chimney 
reduced in order to prevent the gases from escaping too fast 
to make steam. 

"When two flues enter a larger one at right angles to it, oppo- 
site each other, as is frequently the case where there is a large 
number of boilers in a battery, and tbe chimney is placed near 
the center of the battery, the main flue should always have a 
division plate in its center oetween the two entering flues to 
OTe direction to tho incoming currents of gases, and prevent 



Maxims and Instructions. 2gj 

OHBINEYS AND DRAUGHT, 
their ** butting,** as it may be termed. The same thing 
should always be done where two horizontal flues enter a chim- 
ney at the same height at opposite sides. 

In stationary boilers the chimney area should be one-fifth 
greater than the combined area of all the tubes or flues. 

For marine boilers the rule is to allow fourteen square inches 
of chimney area for each nominal horse power. 

The draught of a chimney is usually measured in inches of 
water. The arrangement most commonly made use of for this 
purpose consists of a U-shaped glass tube connected by rubber 
tubing, iron pipe, or other arrangement, with some part of the 
chimney in such a way that the draught will produce a difPerence 
of level of water in the two legs of the bent glass tube. 

The ^' Locomotive'^ suggests that the unit for chimney con- 
strvction should be a flue 81 feet high above the level of the 
grates, having an area equal to the collective area of the tubes 
of all the boilers leading to it, the boilers being of the ordinary 
horizontal return tubular type, having about 1 square foot of 
heating surface to 45 square feet of heating surface. 

Note the above conditions, and, in case of changing the above 
proportions, it should be observed that the draught power of 
chimneys is proportional to the square root of the height, so we 
may reduce its area below the collective area of the boiler tubes 
in the same proportion that the square root of its height exceeds 
the square root of 81. 

For example, suppose we have to design a chimney for ten 
boilers, ^Q in. in diameter, each having 72 tubes^ 3 J in. in 
diameter, what would be its proportion ? 

The collective area of the 720 3g-in. tubes would be 6,017 
square inches, and if the chimney is to be but 81 feet high, it 
should have this area, which would require a flue 6 ft. 5^ in. 
square. 

But, suppose, for some reason, it is decided to have a chimney 
150 feet in height, instead of 81 feet. The square root of 150 
is 12i ; the square root of 81 is 9 ; and we reduce the area of the 
ciiimney by the following proportion: 12.25: 9=6,017: 4,420 
-Quare inches, which would be the proper area, and would call 
lor a chimney 5 ft. 6 in. square, and similarly if any other 
neight were decided upon. 



Maxims and Instructions, 





PLTTMBHSTG. 

The art of working in lead is older than the pyramids. 
For thousands of years hydraulics and plumbing as an occu- 
pation engaged the principal attention of engineers. King 

David used lead 

pipe, so did 

Archimedes; the 

terraces and gar- 
dens of Babylon 

were supplied 

with water 

through leaden 

pi p e s. S t e a m 
fitting, with galvanized pipe and an elaborate system of connec 
tions and devices is a new department of mechanism —almost 

of the present generation — and at first 
sight would seem able soon to supercede 
lead piping of all kinds, but it is safe to 
say that nothing can ever take the place 
of lead, for this admirable metal can be 
made to answer where no other materia] 
can be worked; for instance, lead pipe can 
be made to conform to any angle or ob- 
struction where no other system of piping 
will. Hence, plumbing as a useful and 
ornamental art will never go out of date, 
and engineers of every branch will do well 
to study its principles and methods so as 
to meet the ever-recurring and perplexing 
questions connected with sewerage, water 
supply, etc. 

Every engineer should at least know how 
1, to join lead pijje — to make a "wipe 
joint," — as in a hundred emergencies this 
knowledge will be of worth. 2, how to make a temporary 
stopping of leaks; 3, how to bend pipe with sand or springs; 4, 
how to "back air pipes" from sinks; 5, how to use "force 
pumps; 6, how to arrange the circulating pipes in hot-water 
boilers ; 7, how to make solder ; 8, how to repair valves, etc. , etc. 




Maxims and Instructions. 



299 



PIPING AND DRAINAGE. 

The three illustrations on page 298 are designed to represent 
traps set in lead pipe and show vividly the difference between 
this material and iron piping. 

Lead is one of the elementary substances of which the world 
is formed; it ranks with oold, silver, tin, etc., in being an 
unmixed metal. It melts at about 617° Fahrenheit, and is, 
bulk for bulk, 11t% heavier than water (gold being 17tu heavier 
and wrought iron 7Tn henvier). The tenacity of lead is 
extremely low, a wire iVth of an inch breaks with a weight of 



Fig. 159. 




28 lbs.; in comparison, its tenacity is only one-twentieth that 
of iron; it is so soft that it may be scratched with the thumb 
nail. If a very strong heat is applied lead boils and evaporates; 
it transmits heat very slowly; of seven common metals it is the 
worst conductor, therefore it is good for hot water pipes. 
Mixed with a sufficient quantity of quicksilver it remains liquid. 
An advantage to be found in the use of lead is its durability 
and comparative freedom from repairs. In London, soil and 
drain water pipes which have been fixed 300 to 500 years are as 



joo Maxims and Instructions. 



PIPING AND DRAINAGE. 

good now as the day they were first made — while iron pipe 
cannot be expected to last over 10 or 20 years or 30 at the 
utmost. 

Fig. 159 represents the general system of house piping and 
drainage applicable also to shops, public buildings, etc. A 
exhibits the drain or sewer. A-C represents the sewer connec- 
tion, so called with a running trap, B. *^ " at the end of the 
lower pipe exhibits a soil pipe elbow, with hand hole for clean- 
ing out closed by a screw plug. This drain should have a 
regular fall or inclination and this elbow provides for that. 
C-D shows the ram water leader (conductor). 

E and F is a soil pipe 3, 4, 5, or 6 inches in diameter. Note, 
pipes draining water closets are called ''soil pipes ''; those 
draining other fixtures ''waste pipes." N and represent 
water-closet flanges; F and H are roof connections; L exhibits 
double and single Y branches to receive waste-pipes from 
baths, bowls, or sinks. The plumber makes this connection, 
always trapping the lead waste-pipe and then soldering it to a 
hrass nipple. 

LEAD PIPE JOINTS. 




Fig. 160. 

It has been remarked that after learning how to make '^a 
wipe ]oint,'' everything is easy relating to the plumbery's trade; 
hence, the importance of the following directions. 

To learn the art, previous practice with short pieces of pipe 
is recommended. This trial piece can be clamped as shown in 
Fig. 160 and used over and over until practice has been had. 

There are many names for the process of lead joint-making, 
such as the flow- joint, the ribbon joint, the blown joint, the 
astragal joint, etc., to express the different positions and uses 



iMuxzm^ and instrMctions. JOI 



LEAD PIPE JOINTS, 
for which thej are needed, but in the main thej are made as 
follows : 

1. The lead pipe to be joined is sawn square off with the 
proper toothed saw — attention being paid to making the end 
abso''ntely true, across the pipe. 

2. One end of the pipe to be joined is first opened by driving 
in a wooden wedge, shaped like a plumb-bob, called the ''turn 
pin," Care should be exercised at this time not to split the 
end, \ inch opening is usually enough, which leaves the pipe as 
shown at D, Fig. 161. Now, clean the internal part of the 
joint all around the part required for soldering — this cleaniug 
can be done wath the plumber's shave hook or with a pocket 
knife. To complete this preparation *' touch " the part with 
grease from a tallow candle. 

3. Next is the preparation of the male part of the joint. 
This must be rasp-filed down to fit the enlarged opening. It 
is important to have a good fit throughout; hence, inside the 
enlarged opening must be also rasp-filed and the two surfaces 
to come nicely together before the solder is applied. 

4. At this stage a paste called ''plumber's soil*' must be 
applied outside 3 inches from the end of each piece of pipe; 
this is shown by the line E E in Fig. 161, also at A B. Fig. 160; 
the line of the soiling should be very even and true in order to 
assure a workmanlike job and the soiling put on as before 
stated, Z to ^ inches leyond the solder line on each side. 

As the melting point of lead is 612 degrees or thereabouts, it 
is necessary to have solder melt at a lower temperature, and that 
made under the rule given will melt at 440 to 475 degrees. 

No tool to a plumber is more important than the cloth used 
in joint making. To make it, take a piece of new mole skin or 
fustian, of moderate thickness, 12 inches long by 9 inches 
wide, fold it up one side 4 inches; then 4 inches again, and 
again 4 inches; then fold it in the middle, which will make 
your cloth 4x4-^ inches, and of 6 thickness. After this is done, 
sew up the ragged ends to keep it from opening. Then pour 
a little hot tallow on one side and the cloth is ready for use. 
In Fig. 160-a is show^n, H, a hand holding the cloth in the 
process of "wiping the joint," which will now be described. 



302 



Maxims and Instructions. 



LEAD PIPE JOINTS, 
First place a small piece of paper under the Joint to catch the 
surplus solder D and begin soldering as follows: Take the felt F 
in the right hand and with it hold the ladle three parts full of 
solder. To see that it is not too hot hold your hand within 2 
inches or so of the solder; if it quickly burns your hand it is 
too hot; if you can only just hold your hand this distance, use 
it; but if you cannot feel the heat, the soldtr is too cold. 

When you begin to p.our your solder upon the joint do it 
very lightly and not too much at a time in one place, but keep 
the ladle moving backward and forward, pouring from E to J, 
first on one side of the joint to the other and from end to end. 

Pour also an inch or two up the soiling, as shown at E to 
make the pipe of proper temperature, /. e., to the same heat as 
the solder. The further, in reason, the heat is run or taken 
along the pipe, the better the chance of making the joint. 




Fig. 160 a. 

Keep pouring and with the left hand hold the cloth C to 
catch the solder and also cause the same to tin the lower side of 
the pipe and to keep the solder from dropping down. This 
cloth, so important in joint making is elsewhere described. 
By the process of steady pouring the solder now becomes nice 
and soft and begins to feel shaped, firm and bulky. 

When in this shape and in a semi-fluid condition quickly put 
the ladle down, and instantly with the left hand shape one side 
of the joint always beginning at the outsides, or at that part 



Maxims and instructiO/Li>» 



303 



LEAD PJPK JOINTS, 
next the soiling; then take the cloth in the right hand and do 
the other &idiQ, finishing 0)i the top; a light run of the clotli all 
round the joint will, if the solder has not set and you have been 
quick with your work, give the appearance of a turned joint. 
After a little practice the joint may be made without changing 
the cloth from one hand to the other. 

The secret of joint mahing is getting the lead to the heat of 
the solder and in roughhj shaping the solder ^ while in the semi- 
fluid state. 

Good mechanical fitting is the result of two things — good 
judgment and a delicate sense of touch. 




Kepaieikg Pipes with Putty Joints. 

First get the pipe thoroughly driedy and 
Vfith some quick drying gold size paint the 
part to be repaired; then get some white 
lead and stiffen it with some powdered red 
lead, so as to make it a hardish putty, place 
a thin layer of this, say f th inch to ^ inch 
F in thickness, over the burstcd part of the 
pipe, and with some good strong calico, 
painted with the gold size, neatly wrap the 
red lead to the pipe, using 3 or 4 thick- 
nesses of the painted calico; then with 
some twine begin at one end, laying the 
twine in several layers in rotation until it 
has, like the calico, several thicknesses. 

If properly done this will be strong 
enough to withstand any ordinary press- 
ure on the pipes and if more is required 
the putty can be made from dry red lead 
and o^old size. In makinsr all white and 
red lead joints, first, see that the parts are 
thoroughly dry; second, see that the parts 
are not dirty with rust, &c.; next, well 
Fig. 161. paint the parts with good, stiff paint be- 

fore putting the putty on to form the joint. 




jo^ Maxims and Instructions, 



BENDING LEAD PIPE. 

If any ordinary piece of light lead pipe \\ inches in diam- 
eter is taken and pulled or bent sharply around it will crimple 
or crinkle at the throat ; the larger and thinner the pipe the 
more it will become distorted. 

There are many methods of making these bends in lead pipe, 
some with dummies, others with bolts, balls, etc., others cut 
the bends at the back, at the throat, or the two sides of the 
bend. 

For small pipes, such as i to 1 inch and extra heavy, they 
may be pulled round without trouble or danger, but for a little 
larger size saistd bendikg is largely practiced as follows : 

Take the length of pipe, say 5 feet, fill and well ram it with 
sand 2 feed up, then have ready a metal pot of very hot sand 
to fill the pipe 1 foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold 
sand, ramming it as firmly as possible, stop the end and pull 
round the pipe, at the same time hammering quickly working 
the lead from the throat towards the back, which can be done 
if properly worked. N. B. — Care must be used not to reduce 
or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend. 

Bending with Water. — It is a well-known fact that for 
such work, water is incompressible, but may be turned or 
twisted about for any shape provided it is enclosed in a solid 
case. To make the bend — the end of the pipe is stopped and 
a stop cock soldered into the other end ; take the pipe at the 
end and pull it around, being careful that the water does not 
cool and shrink, and hammering quickly to take out the crinkle. 

Bending with Balls. — This method is practiced with small 
pipe and also to take '^ dints'' out in case of sand and water 
bending when a ball is sent through. Method : suppose the 
pipe to be two inches, then a ball is required iV in. less than 
the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now 
pull the pipe round until it just begins to flatten, put the ball 
into the pipe and with some short pieces of wood, say 2 in. long 
by li in. in diam., force the ball through the dented part of 
the pipe. The ball will run through all the easier if ''touched" 
over with a candle end. Care must be used in forcing the baU 
back and forth not to drive it through the bend. 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



J03 



Table. — Weight of Sheet Lead, 



O O O C5 

• • • J. 

OS t- «o -^ 







00 


00 










• 


5^ 


• 










• 


« 


r-t 


• 
• 


ot 


<i> 


1 
10 


4 


• 
• 


• 


VSI 


, 





00 





^ 


00 





;i^ 


• 


1 

00 


^ 


^ 


4 


ol 


I 

CO 












C3 





00 





^ 


• 




TH 


rH 








t-( 




^ 


1 


ci 


1 

CO 


1 


<k 







c> 


CO 


'* 


00 












r-* 










T-l 




1 


4 


4 


ci 


cl. 


<k 


1 

T-l 




<N 


c? 





rf< 





•^ 





^ 


1-1 
4 


•«— 1 






•PH 






CO 


ol 


<M 


tH 


TH 


tH 




00 


07 


00 





00 





C5 


;^ 


1 

CO 




1 


<k 


( 

tH 


1 

•I— 1 


TH 

1 













^ 





C5 


OS 


:i! 


ci 


<k 


T-l 


1 
1-1 


1 

1—1 


7 


1 




00 


00 


^ 


^ 





t^ 




^ 


I 


1 


I 


1 


■1— 1 
1 


1 


• 




CJ 


TH 


T-l 


T-l 






* 



02 

a 

o 
o 

«M <• ^ » V* « » 

u ^ * • 

o 
.^ - 3 5 • 5 - 

< < 

<J <j <J CQ Q Q H 



Sheet lead is not the same 
weight, bulk for bulk, ow- 
ing to difference in organic 
formation, but a cubic foot 
may be said to weigh 709 lbs. 
A square foot V thick, 59 '* 



e< 


V 




n 


t( 


te 


tV 




6 


ee 


<< 


tV 




5 


tt 


<e 


1 n 




4 


t< 


(C 


1 n 




3 


<( 



Sheet lead is sometimes 
made as thin as writing 
pai)er. 



Plumbee^s Solder. 

Bule for malcing, — Take 
100 lbs. good old lead or lead 
cuttings, run it down thor- 
oughly, stir it up and take off 
all dirt or dross: then take 50 
lbs. pure tin, let this run 
down, and when nearly all is 
melted and is a little cooler 
throw in ^ lb. of black rosin, 
and well stir the lot up. Last 
bring up the heat to 600 
degrees which may be known 
by the burning of a bit of 
newspaper pat in the pot. 
The solder is now hot enough 
and should be well stirred 
and then run into moulds. 



3o6 



Maxims and Instructions. 



PLUMBER'S TOOLS. 





T\^. 163. 




Fig. 162. 

The processes of lead working arc executed 
by manual dexterity acquired by lon.^ pmctice, 
and to do the work properly requires many 

special tools. Some 
of these are used in 
common with other 
departments of 
mechanics, but are 
none the less neces- 
sary m lead working. 
We present cuts of 
the principle tools 
used, some of which 
are self explaining, 
and some are named 
with further de- 
scription of particular use. 

Fig. 162 represents one form 
of ihe plumber's tap borer or 

„. .«. reamer used for making and 

iig. 165. 1 • 1 1 . . 

enlargmg holes m pipe. 

Fig. 163 represents plumber's snips. 

Fig. 164 is the well-known and always use- 
ful ladle. 

Fig. 165 is the round nose pene hammer, 
used ui plumber's work to open the inside pipe 
before jointing. 

Fig. 166 is the phimb bob. The same cut 
will also convey an idea of the wooden instru- 
ment used to force open the pipe before joint- 
-Fig. 166. ing, i. e., *^the turn pin." 



Fig. 164. 





Maxims and Instructions, 



307 



PLUMBER'S TOOLS. 



Fig. 167. 




Fig. 168. 




Fig. 169. 




Fig. 170. 




Fig. 171. 



Fig. 172. 




Fig- 173. 



Fig. 167 represents 
^^the round nose 
chisel." 

Fig. 168 is the 
''wood chisel" used 
in cutting away wood 
work. 

Fig. J 69 is the well- 
known '' cape chisel.^' 



Fig. 170 is the half 
round chisel. 

Fig. 171 is the 
equally well-known 
''flat cold chisel." 

Fig. 172 is the 
" diamond point chis- 
el." 
Fig. 173 shows a rivet set 
for small work connected with 
plumbing and sheet metal 
work. 




Fig. 174 



Fig. 171: exhibits the plumber's torch; this 
is also used by engineers to explore interiors 
of boilers, chimney flues, and other dark 
places about the steam plant. 

Fig. 175 is a compass saw. 

Fig. 176 is a double-edged plumber's saw. 

Fig. 177 is a spirit level. 

Fig. 178 is a looking-glass used in making 
underhand joints and in many useful ways 
about a steam plant. 



3o8 



Maxims and Instructions, 



PLUMBER'S TOOLS. 




Fig. 175. 




Fig. 176. 



Fig. 177. 




Fig. 179 is a 
caulking tool. 

Y\g. 180 is a 
gasket chisel. 




Fig. 183. 



Fig. 178. 




Fig. 181 is a soldering tool known 
among plumbers as '^a copper 
pointed bolt."*' 



Fig. 179. 




Fig. 180. 




Fig. 181. 



Fig. 182. 



Fig. 182 is a 
copper-point- 
ed bolt, flat. 

Fig. 183 
represents a 
hanger, for 
suspending 
iron and lead 
pipe ; its ex- 
cellence con- 
sists in enab- 
ling pipes to 
be raised or lowered 
after being hung 
without taking the 
hangei' apart. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



P9 



USEFUL TABLES OF WEIGHTS OF IRON 
AND COMPARISONS OF GAUGES. 



Weight of a Superficial Foot of Plate and Slieet Iron. 



Plate Iron. 


Sheet Iron. 






United States Standard Guage. 


'Thick. 


Weight 

per 

square foot. 


Adopted by Congress, to take effect July lf?t, 1893. 


Qess. 


Number 


lOOO's 


Weight 
per 


Nearest 

fraction of 

an inch. 


INCHES. 


POUNDS. 


OF 
GUAGK. 


of 
an. inch. 


scfuare foot. 

OONCES 


Vm in- 


2^ 


No. 1 


.281 


180 oz. 


®/32 in. 


*/l6 *\ 


6 


" 2 
•• 3 


.265 
.250 


170 •• 
160 " 




9 •^ 


10 


M 4 


.234 


150 •• 


^5/«4 ♦• 


^/l« «• 


12K 


•• 5 


.218 


140 " 


3/32 •• 


% •• 


15 


" 6 


.203 


130 " 


13/04 •• 


'/l6 •' 


17K 


" 7 


.187 


120 " 


3/l6- .. 


14 ' 


20 


•* 8 


.171 


110 •' 


11/64 •• 


»/i« '• 


22^ 


*' 9 


.156 


100 " 


^/32 «« 


^i " 


25 


" 10 


.140 


90 •• 


®/64 •* 


^^/l6 " 


271^ 


•• 11 


.125 


80 '• 


Vs " 




30 


'• 12 


.109 


70 " 


''lei •• 


32K 


" 13 


.093 


60 " 


^/32 '• 


;^ •• 


35 


" 14 


.078 


50 •• 


^/64 " 


Jl'-<:i 


373^ 


" 15 


.070 


45 '• 


»/l28 •• 


40 


•* 16 


.062 


40 •* 


Vl6 " 






•' 17 


.056 


36 •• 


®/l60 •• 






•' 18 


.050 


32 *• 


V20 '• 






•* 19 


.043 


28 " 


''Ilea •• 






" 20 


037 


24 " 


^/so *• 






** 21 


.034 


22 " 


"/320- 






" 22 


.031 


20 " 


1/32 ' • 




j 


•• 23 


.028 


18 •♦ 


^/320 '« 






" 24 


.025 


16 - 


V4O •• 






'• 25 


.021 


14 " 


"^/sao " 






'• 26 


.018 


12 '• 


^/l60 '« 






" 27 


017 


11 " 


"/mo '« 






•• 28 


.015 


10 '• 


Va •• 






"i 29 
*^ SO 


014 


9 " 


^/eao " 






.ai2 


s •• 


*/Ba^ •*- 



3W 



Maxims and Instructions, 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Weight of One Foot of Round Iron. 



Size. 


Weight pr. Foot. 


Size. 


Weight pr. Foot. 


Size. 


Weight pr. Foot 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Kin. 


.041 


IjV in. 


5.41 


83/2 in. 


32.07 


/r •" 


.092 


IK .. 


5.89 


3^^ .. 


34.40 


X •• 


.164 


h\ .. 


6.39 


^% .. 


36-8i2 


ff •• 


.256 


'^% .. 


6.91 


3^^ .. 


<59.31 


% .. 


.368 


m .. 


7.45 


4' .. 


41.89 


fff .. 


.501 


1% .. 


8.02 


4^ .. 


44.65 


¥ •• 


.654 


Hf .. 


8.60 


4^ .. 


47.2^ 


t " 


.828 


1^ .. 


9.20 


4% .. 


50 11 


% .. 


1.02 


HI •• 


9.83 


4>^ .. 


63 01 


r.: 


1.24 


2 .. 


10.47 


4.5^ .. 


56.00 


1.47 


21/^ .• 


11.82 


4M .. 


69.07 


p. 


1.73 


2^ .. 


13.25 


4% .. 


62.22 


2.00 


2% •. 


14.77 


5 .. 


65.45 


il .. 


2.30 


21^ .. 


16.36 


^Ys .. 


68.76 


1 .. 


2.62 


^% .. 


18.04 


5^ .. 


72.16 


1^ .. 


2.95 


2M .. 


19.80 


5^ .. 


75.64 


I¥ •• 


8.31 


2;^ .. 


21.64 


5K .. 


79.19 


^x% .. 


3.69 


3 .. 


23.56 


5M .^ 


82.83- 


IK .. 


4.09 


3^ .. 


25.57 


5^ .. 


86.56 


1t\ .. 


4.51 


^H .. 


27.65 


5;g .. 


90.36 


m .. 


4.95 


3^ ,. 


29.82 


6 .. 


94.25 



Weight of One Foot of Square Iron, 



Size. 



K in. 

yi •• 

AS, 



Weight pr. Foot 



Lbs. 
.052 
.117 
.208 
.326 
.469 
.638 
.833 
1.06 
1.30 
1.58 
1.87 
2.20 
2.55 
2.93 
3.33 
3.76 
4.22 
4.70 
6.21 
5.74 
6.30 



Size, 



h\ in. 

IK .. 
1 9 

lU .. 
1^ .. 

m -. 

m ,. 
2 .. 

2K .. 
2K .. 

2% .. 

2K .. 

2M .. 

2^ .. 

2/a .. 

3^^ .. 

3K .. 
31^ .. 

3% ». 



Weight pr, Foot- 



Lbs. 

6.89 

7.50 

8.14 

8.80 

9.49 

10.21 

10.95 

11.72 

12.51 

13.33 

15.05 

16.88 

18.80 

20.83 

22.97 

25.21 

27.55 

30.00 

32.55 

35.21 

87.97 



Size. 



3Kin. 
^% .. 
^% .. 
3;^ .. 
4 .. 

4K .. 

4^ .. 

4% .. 

4K .. 

^% .. 

434 .. 

4;^ .. 
5 

h% .. 

5^ ... 

m .. 
5K .. 
^% .. 

6 .. 



Weight pf.Fdot 



Lbs. 

40.8^ 

43>80 

46.88 

60.05 

53.33 

66.72 

60.21 

63.80 

67.50 

71.30 

75.21 

79.22 

83.33 

87.55 

91.88 

96.30 

100-80 

105.50 

110.20 

115.10 

120.00 



Maxims and InstrMctions. 



3ii 



USEFUL TABLEa 



"Weight per Running" Foot of Cast Steet 



Size. 



3^ in. Sq. 

/4 .. .. 

X • • • • 

IM .. .. 
1% .. ., 



Lbs. 



.213^ 
.855 
1.91 
8.40 
6.32 
7.67 
18.63 



Size. 



H in. Rd 



P 



Lbs. 



.167 
.669 
1.50 
2.67 
4 18 
6.02 
10.71 



SiZE. 



1 Kl^ 
15^X34 

2 xi 



Lbs 



.852 
1.43 

2 13 
3.19 
4 46 

3 40 
25 



^14. 25 I) 



Size. 



3^ in. Oct. 



H 



Lbs. 



■•• • • ■ 

1^.. 



.745 
1.16 
1 67 

2.28 
2.98 
8.77 
4.65 



Comparison of Principal Guages In use 



United States 
Standard. 



Num- 


lOOO's 


ber. 


of 




an inch. 


No. 1 


.281 


- 2 


.265 


*' 3 


.250 


*' 4 


.234 


** 6 


.218 


** 6 


.203 


4V 7 


.187 


** 8 


.171 


" 9 


.156 


**10 


.140 ! 


**11 


.125 


*'12 


.109 


*'13 


.093 


*'14 


.078 


"15 


.070 


••16 


.062 ' 


**17 


.056 1 


*'18 


.050 ! 


••19 


.043 


•*20 


.037 


**21 


.034 


»'22 


.031 


•'23 


.028 


"24 


.025 


••25 


.021 


"26 


.018 


"27 


.017 


•'28 


.016 


«29 


.014 


«*30 


.018 



Pounds 

per square 

foot. 

moN. 



11.25 

10.62 

10. 

9. 37 

8.75 

8.12 

7.50 

6.87 

6.25 

5.62 

5.00 

4.37 

3 75 

3.12 

2.81 

2.50 

2.25 

2.00 

1.75 

1.50 

1.37 

1.25 

1.12 

1.00 

.87 

.75 

.68 

.62 

.56 

.60 



Stubbs* Birminoham. 



r 



lOOO's 

of 

an Inch. 



.300 
.284 
.259 
.238 
.220 
.203 
.180 
165 
.148 
.134 
.120 
.109 
.095 
083 
.072 
.065 
.058 
.049 
.042 
.035 
.032 
.028 
.025 
.022 
.020 
.018 
.016 
.014 
.013 
.012 



Pounds 

per square 

foot. 

IRON. 



12 04 

11.40 

10.39 

9.55 

8.83 

8. 15 

7 22 

6 62 

6.94 

6. 38 

4.82 

4.37 

3.81 

3 33 

2.89 

2.61 

2.33 

1.97 

169 

1 40 

1.28 

1.12 

1.00 

.88 

.80 

.72 

.64 

.66 

.62 

.48 



Brown & Sharp^ 



lOOO's 


Pounds 


of 


per square 


an inch. 


foot. 




IRON. 


.289 


11.61 


.257 


1084 


.229 


9.21 


.204 


8.20 


.181 


7.30 


.162 


6.50 


.144 


6.79 


.128 


6.16 


.114 


4 69 


.102 


4.09 


.091 


3.64 


.080 


8 24 


.072 


2.89 


.064 


2.57 


.057 


2.29 


.050 


2 04 


.045 


1.82 


.040 


1.^ 


.036 


1 44 


.032 


1.28 


.028 


1.14 


.026 


l.Otf 


.022 


.90 


.020 


.80 


.018 


.72 


.016 


.64 


.014 


.ft7 


.012 


.60 


.011 


.46 


.010 


.40 



JI2 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



NOISELESS WATER HEATER. 

This device is very effective for heating water in open or 
closed tanks by direct steam pressure without noise. The 
heater consists of an outward and upward discharging steam 
nozzle, covered by a shield which has numerous openings for 
the admission of water so that tlie discharge jet takes tiie form 
of an inverted cone, discharging upwards. 



I STEAM. 








Fig. 184. 



A small pipe admits air to the steam jet, and by mixing 
therewith prevents a collapse of the steam bubbles, and the 
noise, which is such a great objection to heating by direct 
steam in the old way. A valve or cock on the small air pipe 
regulates the opening as may appear most desirable. 

Exhaust steam can by the same method be disposed of under 
water without noise. 



Maxims and Instructions. jij 




ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

Few subjects can more usefully employ 
the attention and study of engineers than 
the proper treatment and first remedies 
made necessary by the pecuhar and dis- 
tressing accidents to which persons are 
liable who are employed in or around a 
steam plant. 

These and many other things of a like 
nature are likely to call for a cool head, a 
steady hand and some practical knowl- 
Fig. 184. edge of what is to be done. 

In the first moments of sudden disaster, of any kind, the 
thoroughly trained engineer is nearly always found, in the con- 
fusion incident to such a time, to he the one most competent 
to advise and direct the efforts made to avert the danger to life 
limb or property, and to remedy the worst after effects. 

To fulfil this responsihility is worth much previous prepara- 
tion, so that the best things under the circumstances may be 
done quickly and efficiently. To this end the following advice 
is given relating to the most common accidents which are 
likely to happen, in spite of the utmost exercise of care and 
prudence. 

Burns and Scalds. — Burns are produced by heated 
solids or by flames of some combustible substance ; scalds are 
produced by steam or a heated liquid. The severity of the 
accident depends mainly, 1, on the intensity of the heat of the 
burning body, together with, 2, the extent of surface, and, 3, 
the vitality of the parts involved in the injury, thus : a person 
may have a fiuger burned off with less danger to life than an 
extensive scald of his back. 

The immediate effect of scalds is generally less violent than 
that of burns ; fluids not being capable of acquiring so high a 
temperature as some solids, but flowing about with great facil- 
ity, their effects become most serious by extending to a large 
surface of the body. A burn which instantly destroys the part 



ji^ Maxims and Instructions, 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

which it tonches may be free from dangerons complications, if 
the injured part is confined within a small compass; this is 
owing to the peculiar formation of the skin. 

The skin is made up of two layers; the outer one has neither 
blood vessels nor nerves, and is called the scarf-skin or cuticle; 
the lower layer is called the true skin, or cutis. The latter is 
richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels, and is so highly 
sensitive we could not endure life unless protected by the 
cuticle. The skin, while soft and thin, is yet strong enough 
to enable us to come in contact with objects without pain or 
inconvenience. 

The extent of the surface involved, the depth of the injury, 
the vitality and sensibility of the parts affected must all be duly 
weighed in estimating the severity and danger of an accident 
in any given case. 

In severe cases of bums or scalds the clothes should be 
removed wiili the greatest care — they should be carefully cut, at 
the seams, and not pulled off. 

In scalding by boiling water or steam, cold water should be 
plentifully poured over the person and clothes, and the patient 
then be carried to a warm room, laid on the floor or a table but 
not put to bed, as there it becomes difficult to attend further 
to the injuries. 

The secret of the treatment is to avoid chafing, and to keep 
(mi the air. Save the skin unbroken, if possible, taking care 
not to break the blisters; after removal of the clothing an 
application, to the injared surface, of a mixture of soot and 
lardy is, according to practical experience, an excellent and 
efficient remedy. The two or three following methods of treat- 
ment also are recommended according to convenience in 
obtaining the remedies. 

Take ice well crushed or scraped, as dry as possible, then 
mix it with fresh lard until a broken paste is formed ; the 
mass should be put in a thin cambric bag, laid upon the bum 
or scald and replaced as required. So long as the ice and lard 
are melting there is no pain from the bum, return of pain calls 
for a repetition of the remedy. 



Maxims and Instructions, j/ r 



BURNS AND HEAT STROKES. 
The free use of soft soap upon a fresh burn will remove the 
fire from the flesh in a very little time, in i to i an hour. If 
the burn be severe, after relief from the lurn, use linseed oil 
and then sift upon it wheat flour. When this is dried repeat 
the oil and flour until a complete covering is formed. Let this 
dry until it falls off, and a new skin will be formed without a 



scar 



In burns with lime, soap lye, or any caustic alkali, wash 
abundantly with water (do not rub), and then with weak vine- 
gar or water containing a little sulphuric acid; finally apply 
oil, paste or mixture as in ordinary burns. 

It would be well to always keep ready mixed an ointment 
for burns; in fact a previous readiness for an accident robs it 
of half its ill effects. 

Glue Buek Mixtuee. 

A method in use in the JST. Y. City Hospital known as the 
''glue burn mixture" is composed as follows: " 7|- Troy oz, 
white glue, 16 fiuid oz. water, 1 fiuid oz. glycerine, 2 fluid 
drachms carbolic acid. Soak the glue in the water until it is 
soft, then heat on a water bath until melted; add the glycerine 
and carbolic acid and continue heating until, in the intervals 
of stirring, a glossy strong skin begins to form over the surface. 
Pour the mass into small jars, cover with parafine papers and 
tm foil before the lid of the jar is put on and afterwards pro- 
tect by paper pasted round the edge of the lid. In this 
manner the mixture may be preserved indefinitely. 

"When wanted for use, heat in a water bath and apply with 
a flat brush over the burned part." 

Insensibility from Smoke. — To recover a person 
from this dash cold water in the face, or cold and hot water 
alternately. Should this fail turn the patient on his face with 
the arms folded under his forehead; apply pressure along the 
back and ribs and turn the body gradually on the side; then 
again slowly on the face, repeating the pressure on the back: 
continue the alternate rolling movements about sixteen times 
a minute until breathing is restored. A warm bath will com- 
plete the cure. 



3i6 Maxims and Instructions. 



TREATMENT OF CUTS AND WOUNDS. 

Heat-Stroke or Sun-stroke. — The worst cases occur 
where the sun's rays never penetrate and are caused by the 
extreme heat of close and confined rooms, overheated work- 
shops, boiler-rooms, etc. The symptoms are : 1, a sudden loss of 
consciousness ; 2, heavy breathing ; 3, great heat of the skin ; 
and 4, a marked absence of sweat. 

Treatment, — The mam tnmg is to lower the temperature. 
To do this, strip off the clothing, apply chopped ice wrapped 
in flannel to the head; rub ice over the chest, and place pieces 
under the armpits and at the side. If no ice can be had use 
sheets or cloths wet with cold water, or the body can be stripped 
and sprinkled with cold water from a common watering pot. 

Cuts and Wounds, — In Uiese the chief points to be 
attended to are: 1, arrest the bleeding; 2, remove from the 
wound all foreign bodies as soon as possible; 3, bring the 
wounded parts opposite to each other and keep them so; this 
is best done by means of strips of adhesive plaster, first applied 
to one side of the wound and then secured to the other; these 
strips should not be too broad, and space must be left betweeri 
the strips to allow any matter to escape. Wounds too exten- 
sive to be held together by plaster must be stitched by a sur- 
geon, who should always be sent for in all severe cases. 

For washing a wound, to every pint of water add 2 J tea- 
spoonfuls of carbolic acid and 2 tablespoonf als of glycerine — 
if these are not obtainable, add 4 tablespoonsful of borax to 
the pint of water — wash the wound- close it, and apply a com- 
press of a folded square of cotton or linen; wet it in the solution 
used for washing the wound and bandage down quickly and 
firmly. If the bleeding is profuse, a sponge dipped in very 
hot water and wrung out in a cloth should be applied as 
quickly as possible — if this is not to be had, use ice or cloth 
wrung out in ice water. 

Wounds heal in two ways. 1, rapidly by primary union, 
without suppuration, and leaving only a very fine scar. 2, 
slowly by suppuration and the formation of granulations and 
leaving a large red scar. 



Maxims and Instructions, jiy 



ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 
Bleeding, — This is of three kinds: 1, from the arteries 
T\^hich lead from the heart; 2, that which comes from the 
veins, which take the blood back to the heart; 3, that from the 
small veins which carry the blood to the surface of the body 
In the first, the blood is bright scarlet and escaj^es as though h 
was being pumped. In the second, the blood is dark red and 
flows away in an uninterrupted stream. In the third, the 
blood oozes out. In some wounds all three kinds of bleeding 
occur at the same time. 

The simplest and best remedy to stop the bleedmg is to 
apply direct pressure on the external wound by the fingers. 
Should the wound be long and gaping, a compress of some 
soft material large enough to fill the cavity may be pressed 
into it; but this should always be avoided, if possible, as it 
prevents the natural closing of the wound. 

Pressure with the hands will not suJBBce to restrain bleeding 
in severe cases for a great length of time and recourse must be 
had to a ligature; this can best be made with a pocket hand 
kerchief or other article of apparel, long enough and strong 
enough to bind the limb. Fold the article neck-tie fashion, 
then place a smooth stone, or anything serving for a firm pad, 
on the artery, tie the handkerchief loosely, insert any available 
fitick in the loop and proceed to twist it, as if wringing a towel, 
until just tight enough to stop the flow. Examine the wound 
from time to time, lessen the compression if it becomes very 
cold or purple, or tighten up the handkerchief if it commences 
bleeding. 

Some knowledge of anatomy is necessary to guide the opera- 
tor where to press. Bleeding from the head and upper neck 
requires pressure to be placed on the large artery which passes 
up beside the windpipe and just above the collar bone. The 
artery supplying the arm and hand runs down the inside of the 
upper arm, almost in line with the coat seam, and should be 
pressed as shown in Fig. 184. The artery feeding the leg and 
foot can be felt in the crease of the groin, just where the flesh 
of the thigh seems to meet the flesh of the abdomen and this is 
the best place to apply .he ligature. In arterial bleeding the 



^iS Maxims and Ins true tio'tis. . 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES, 
pressure must be put between the heart and the wound, while 
in venous bleeding it must be beyond the wound to stop the 
flow as it goes towards the heart. 

In any case of bleeding, the person may become weak and 
faint; unless the blood is flowing actively this is not a serious 
sign, and the quiet condition jf the faint often assists nature 
in staying the bleeding, oy allowing the blood to clot and so 
block up any wound in a blood vessel. Unless the faint is 
prolonged or the patient is losing much blood, it is better not 
to hasten to relieve the faint condition; when in this state any- 
thing like excitement should be avoided, external warmth 
should be applied, the person covered with blankets, and bot- 
tles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the feet and arm-pits. 

Frost'bite. — No warm air, warm water, or fire should be 
allowed near the frozen parts until the natural temperature is 
nearly restored; rub the affected parts gently with snow or 
snow water in a cold room; the circulation should be restored 
very slowly; and great care must be taken in the after treat- 
ment. 

Srohen Sones, — The treatment consists of, 1, carefully 
removing or cutting away, if more convenient, any of the 
clothes which are compressing or hurting the injured parts; 2, 
very gently replacing the bones in their natural position and 
shape, as nearly as possible, and putting the part in a position 
which gives most ease to the patient; 3, applying some tempo- 
rary splint or appliance, which will keep the broken bones 
from moving about and tearing the flesh; for this purpose, 
pieces of wood, pasteboard, straw, or firmly folded cloth may 
be used, taking care to pad the splints with some soft material 
and not to apply them too tightly, while the splints may be 
tied by loops of rope, string, or strips of cloth; 4, conveying 
the patient home or to a hospital. 

The bearer then places his arm behind the back of the patient 
and grasps his opposite hip, at the same time catching firmly 
hold of the hand of the patient resting on his shoulder, with 
his other hand ; then by putting his hip behind the near hip of 
the patient, much support is given, and if necessary, the bearer 
can lift him off the ground and as it were, carry him along. 



Maxims and Instructiofis. Ji^ 



ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

JPotiltiees, — These outward applications are useful to 
relieve sudden cramps and pains due to severe injuries, sprains 
and colds. Tlie secret of applying a mustard is to apply it hot 
and keep it so by frequent changes — if it gets cold and clammy 
it will do more harm than good. Poultices to be of any service 
and hold its heat should be from one-half to one inch thick. 
To make it, take flaxseed, oatmeal, rye meal, bread, or ground 
slippery elm: stir the meal slowly into a bowl of boiling water, 
until a thin and smooth dough is formed. To apply it, take a 
piece of old linen of the right size, fold it in the middle; 
spread the dough evenly on one half of the cloth and cover it 
with the other. 

To make a *' mustard paste" as it is called, mix one or two 
tablespoonfuls of mustard and the same of fine flour, with 
enough water to make the mixture an even paste; spread it 
neatly with a table knife on a piece of old Jinen, or ^ven cotton 
cloth. Cover the face of the paste with a piece of thin muslin. 

How to Carry aft Injured J^erson. — In case of 
an injury where walking is impossible, and lying down is not 
absolutely necessary, the injured person may be seated in a 
chair, and carried; or he may sit upon a board, the ends of 
which are carried by two men, around whose necks he should 
place his arms so as to steady himself. 

Where an injured person can walk he will get much help by 
putting his arms over the shoulders and round the necks of 
two others. 

A seat may be made with four hands and the person may 
be thus carried and steadied by clasping his arms around the 
necks of his bearers. 

If only one person is available and the patient can stand up, 
let him place one arm round the neck of the bearer, bringing 
his hand on and in front of the opposite shoulder of the bearer. 

To get at a broken limb, or rib, the clothing must be 
removed, and it is essential that this be done without injury to 
the patient ; the simplest plan is to rip up the seams of such 
garments as are in the way. Boots must be cut off. It is not 
imperatively necessary to do anything to a broken limb before 
the arrival of a doctor except to keep it perfectly at rest. 



320 Maxims and Instructions^ 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

To carry an injured person by a stretcher (which can be 
made of a door, shutter, or settee— with blankets or shawls or 
coats for pillows) three persons are necessary. In lifting the 
patient on the stretcher it should be laid with its foot to his 
heady so that both are in the same straight line; then one or 
two persons should stand on each side of him, and raise him 
from the ground, slip him on the stretcher; this to avoid the 
necessity of any one stepping over the stretcher, and the liabil- 
ity of stumbling. If a limb is crushed or broken, it may be 
laid upon a pillow with bandages tied around the whole (i. e., 
pillow and limb) to keep it from slipping about. In carrying 
the stretcher the bearers should '*" break step '* with short paces; 
hurrying and jolting should be avoided and the stretcher 
should be carried so that the patient may be m plain sight of 
the bearers. 

PERSON"AL. 

The Jireman, so called, in steam service of any description, 
should and does on the average receive double the compensation 
of a man who has only his labor to bargain for. 

In addition, he exercises his skillful vocation in sheltered 
places and is almost the last of the employees of a plant to be 
'' laid off'' and is certainly the first to be called on again after 
stoppage. 

Still further, the fireman has an almost equal opportunity, 
with the best shop trained machinist, for advancement to the 
position of engineer in charge of the most extensive steam plants. 

Now! this increased pay over ordinary labor and other 
numerous advantages accruing from the position, demand a 
generous return, and in ending this ivorh, the author suggests 
these ^'points" for observance to the aspiring studerit, ivhether 
engineer, fireman, or machinist, namely — that sobriety should 
be held one of the first elements of strict observance ; an unrest- 
ing tidiness of person and premises ; dignity of conduct, as 
being owed to the rising profession of steam engineering ; and 
lastly, an unswerving fidelity of trust, which may include hon- 
esty, truthfulness and courage. 



INDEX 



FOR 



IVIAXIJVIS AND INSTRUCTIONS, 



/tecidents and Emergencies, 313. 

Fac:tory rules to prevent, 293. 

Government rules to prevent, 290. 
Acid, definition, 137. 
Advantages of triple draught tubular 

boiler, 84 
4.1r used in burning 1 lb. of coal, 14. 

ditto, bov supplied to the coal, 14. 

Description. IG. 

As a material substance, 16. 

Density at different depths, 16. 

Weight of a column of air, 17. 

AS a fluid, 17. 

AS an impenetrable body, 17. 

Five " points '* for the engineer, 17. 

Composition of, 17. 

Specific heat or, 315. 
Air valve, use of, 255. 
Alcoliol, specific heat of, 214» 
Alkalies, definition, 137. 
Alum, boiling point of, 37. 
Ammoniac (Sal), boiling point of, 37. 
Analysis of antracite coal, 13. 

Of bituminous coal, 13. 

Of wood, 13. 

Of heat, 13. 

Of scale deposited in marine boil- 
ers, 146. 

Of feed waters, 139-140. 
Angle and T iron, dimensions and 

shape, 104. 
4ngle brick, 237. 
Angle-valve, description, 273. 
Antkracite coal, analysis of, 13. 

Ignited with difficulty, 16. 
Antimony, melting point, 42, 
Ansivers of applicants for a marine 

license, 137. 
Arck-brick, 337. 

Area of safety valve, rule for find- 
ing, 193. 
Ask pit, the, 238. 

How kept during firing, 27. 
Assistant engineers, classification 

of, 310. 
Back pressure valves* description, 

273. 
Baffle plate, description, 169, 180. 



Ball valve, description, 273. 
Bark, effect on steam boilers, 151. 
Barrel, rule for finding contents of 

203. 
Bars, grate, description, 173. 
Before ligkting tke fire, direc- 
tions, 35. 
Belts, how to safely run on pullies, 291 
Bending le;\d pipe, 304. 
Bib cock, descrijition, 273. 
Bituminous coal, analysis of, 13. 

How burned, 16. 
Blast pipe for marine boiler, 63. 
Bleeding, treatment of, 317. 
Blovrers for shavings, 30. 
Blow oflT, description, 81. 

Surface, description, 16L 
Boilers, description, 48. 

Upright steam, 50. 

Crude form, 53. 

Plain cylinder, description, 52. 

Cornish, description, 54. 

Lancashire, description, 55. 

Galloway, description of, 58. 

Marine, description of, 60, 

Marine, table of dimensions, 63. 

Locomotive portable, 80. 

Construction of, 89. 

Caulking, 94. 

Dangers from syphoning, 288. 

Dangers from gas, 388. 

Foaming In, 43. 

Fulcring, 94. 

Horse power of, 234. 

Proper steam connection for, 276. 
Boiler braces, " points " relating to., 

104. 
Boiler coverings, 273. 
Boiler, Compound, composition of, 
151-153. 

Compound, for locomotives, 149. 
Boiler castings, specification of, 86. 
Boiler cleaners, mechanical descrip- 
tion, 159, 16. 
Boiler explosions, causes of, 286. 
Boiler fittings and mountings, 87. 

Fixtures, description, 164. 
Boiler flue bruskes* use of, 2L 



322 



Index. 



Boiler fronts, description, 166. 
Hosier injector, description, 206l 
Boiling, process of, 37. 
Boiling points of various substan- 
ces, 37. 
Boiler maker's tools and machin- 
ery, 281. 
Boilers newly set, how fired, 28. 

No two alike, 25. 
Boiler and pipe covering, mix- 
tures for, 275-276. 
Boiler plates, example of riireting, 
114. 

Marks on, 88. 
Boiler repairs, 133. 

Note, 125. 
Boiler scale, analysis of, Wi, 
Boiler scum, how formed, 150. 
Boiler setting, 236. 
Boiler steel, description of quality, 90. 
Boiler tubes, dimensions of lap weld- 
ed tubes, 110. 

Table of holding power. 111. 

Experiments in strength of, IIL 

Notes, 110, 112. 

Illustration of size, 245. 
Boiler testing, specification, 87. 
Bolts, strain on, rule, 99. 

Socket, description, 103. 
Bolt, plumber's copper pointed, 308. 
Bones, broken, treatment of, 318. 
Borer, tap, plumber's, 306. 
Box coil, description, 257. 
Brace, difference between, and stay, 
103. 

Head to head, description, 103. 

Crow foot, 103. 
Braces, shop names for, 103. 

Table for calculations, 107-109). 

Ta-We of diameters, 103. 

Inspector's rules, 102. 

Specification for, 86. 

"- Points " relating to, 104. 
tf racing of steam boilers, 96. 
Bracket, valve, description, 273, 
Brass, conducting power of, 213. 
Brick, furnace, 237. 
Brine valve, description, 277. 
Broken bones, treatment of, 318. 
Burns and scalds, treatment of , 313. 
Burn mixture, 315. 
Bushing, description, 274. 
Butt joint, illustration. 
Calculations relating to steam heat- 
ing, 263, 

Relating to pumps, 22. 

Relating to safety valves, Itfl. 
CTeiipers, use oC 2&. 



j Cape cltlsel, aOT, 38L 
I Carbon, description of. 28Sl 
I Carbonate, definition, 136. 
I Of magnesia, definition, 138, 
I Of lime, at what temperature depos 
ited, 14a 
Carbonic stcid, in water how decteo- 
ted, 153 -154. 
Specific heat of, 215. 
Carbonic acid gas, description cil, 
I 230. 

Carbonic oxide, description of,33L 
1 Specific heat of, 215. 
Carbonizatian, method of, 15. 
I Care and management of the steam 

boiler, 24. 
j Care of steam fittings, 268. 
' Care of water tube boilers, 70. 
Castings, for boiler, specification, 86. 
Caulking, description, 94. 
Caulking tools, plumber's, 308. 
Certiticates of Inspection, issuing 
\ of, 131. 

Cbain rivetintt? example, 93. 
Cliapter of " Uon'ts," 44-47. 
Charcoal, description, 15, 

Specific heat of 214. 
Charcoal Iron, description, 88. 
Check valve, description, 273. 
Chemical terms relating to feed 

water, 136. 
Chemistry, definition, 136. 
Chemistry of the furnace, 236. 
Chief engineers, classification of, 

310. 
Chimney draught, 296i. 
Chisel, cold, 307. 
Cape, 307. 
Round nose, 307. 
Half round nose, 90T, 
Wood, 307. 
Diamond rose, 307. 
Gasket, 308. 
Chloride, definition, 137. 
Chlorides, how indicated la water, 

157. 
C. H. No. 1 F, 88. 
C. H. No. 1 FB, 88^ 
Circle brick, 237. 
Circulation, water, 294. 
Cisterns, capacity of, 303. 
Clamp, boiler, description and cut, 133L 
Classification of marine engi* 

neers, 310. 
Clea.ners, mechanical boiler, descrip* 

tion, 159-180. 
Cleaning out boilers under firins,;^ 
Coal tar, how best fired* SO. 



Index, 



323 



CoaB^ la. 

What It consists of» 1^ 

Common proportions, 13. 

Jntroduciiou of air in burning, 13. 

Bituminous, how it burns, 16. 

Anthracite, how it burns, 16. 

Comparative evaporation, 18. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Storing and handling of, 2*^ 
Cocks, description, 270. 

Vaive, description, 273. 

Gauge, description, 170. 

Bib, description, 273 

Three way, description. V!r6, 

Four way, description, 0?3. 
Coil, box, description, 257. 

ripe, description, 257. 
Coke, description, 15. 

Comparative evaporation, l?i 

Ratio between heating and grate 
surface, 28. 

How best fired, 28, 

Specific heat of, 214. 
Coldc5iisel,30r. 
Cold sliort, definition, 12L 
Columns, glass water gauge, 177. 
Combustible parts of coal, 16. 
Combustion, operation on materials. 
16. 

Chamber, 238. 

Chambers of marine boilers, fig. 
Compasses, use of, 22. 
Compass saw, 308. 
Compound, boiler, composition, 151-2 

For locomotive boilers, 149. 
C No, 1, iron, 88, 
Condenser, surface description. 65. 

Operation of, 66. 
Conducting power ot varioassub 

stances, 213. 
Conical liead of rivets, description 

113. 
Construction of boilers, description 
89. 

And drawing rivet heads, lib, 
Contraction of area^ definition, 121 
Conveyors, screw, 20. 
Copper, conducting power of, 213 

Radiating power of, 213 

Specific heat of, 214. 
Cornish boiler, description of, 54. 

Defects of, 54. 
Corroioion of steam boilers, 126, 142. 

144. 
Coverings tor pipes and boilers, 275. 
Coupling, description, 274. 

For pipe. 2.50. 
Cracks in boilers, how to repair, 123. 



Cross X, aescription, -^4. 
Crowfoot brace, 103» 

Cup Iicad of rivets, description^ Ilo. 
Cutaway front, description, 1&5-167. 
Cuts and wounds, treatment of, 316 
Cylinder boiler, description, 53, 

Defects of, 53. 
Dampers and doors to the furnace, 3ft 
Damper regulators, description, 

185. 
Danger, points, in steam boiler, 123l 
Dart, description and cut, 19. 
Dead end of pipe. 284. 
Dead plate, description, 180, 23J. 
Dead steam, description, 282. 
Dedication, 5. 
Defects, table of, 125. 
Defects and necessary repairs to boil- 
ers, 123. 
Definition of Terms, 121. 
Designing boilers, relating tc 

stayed surfaces, 99. 
Device for using kerosene oil, 158. 
Dianaond nose ebiscl, 307. 
Directions before lighting the fire, 25 

For firing with various fuels, 27. 
Disc for boiler makers, 281. 
'^Don'is," achapier of, 44-47. 
Doors, furnace, description, 168-170, 
Double beat valve, description, 273. 

Also see Fig. 158. 
Double seat valve, description, 273. 
Drain, the steam, description, 81. 
Drainage and piping, descriptimi 

and illustration, 299. 
Drain cock, description, 18I. 
Draughts, at time of lighting tii: 
fire, 26. 

Of chimney, 296. 

Regulating the draught, 4L 
Drawiifgs of rivet heads, lib- 
Drum, mud, descrip*^ion, 17&. 
Dry steam, description, 282. 
Ductile, definition, 13L 
Dudgeon expanders, aescriptioi* 

281. 
Duties of the fireman, 27. 
Duty of boiler, specification, 87. 
Dust icoal), firing of, 40. 
Economizer, fuel, description, iSb 
Klasticity, definition, 121. 
Elastic limit, definition, lli._ 
I^lbo^v, description, 274. 
EleEuent, definition, 136 
Kll, description, 274. 
Elongation of steCi- piate, *.., 

Oeflnition. 121, 
Ether, speoifio noax oz, dltb 



324 



Index, 



Engineer** qnetstions, 133. 



Examinations. ** points,'* 133-133. 

Tests for Impurities in water, 153. 
Evans) Bobt., 11. 
Examination of engineers, 133. 



Exhaust steam heating, 267. 
Expanders (dudgeon), 281. 
Expansion (linear), of steam pipe, 

270. 
Explosions, boiler, 286. 

Of steam pipe, 287. 
Factory rules to prevent accident, 

293. 
Fatigued, definition, 121. 
Feed wafer, analysis of, 139-140. 

Engineer's tests, 153. 

A precipitator for sea ^ater, 146. 

Examples of analysis, 140-141. 

Preliminary precipitation, 144. 

Description, 196. 

Heaters, " points relating to, 201. 

Heaters, table of savings, 200. 

Purifier, description. 185. 
Fire, tbickness of, 40. 

What to do in case of, 40. 
Fire box iron, description, 88. 
Fire brick arch in locomotive, 35. 
Fire clay, conducting power of, 213. 
Fire door, 237. 
Fire irons, 21, 

Firemen, advantages of trained, 24. 
Fire pails, use of, 21. 
Firing, trick of, 24. 

Boilers newly set. 28. 

With straw, description, 81. 

Duties of the fireman, 27. 

Ocean steamer, description, 82. 

Improper method, 27. 

Proper method, 26, 

With oil, description, 33. 

With coal tar, description, 30. 

Of twenty horse power, description, 
30. 

Sixteen steam boilers, description, 
29. 

With shavings, 33. 

With coke, directions, 28. 

Of steam boilers, 24. 

Under a boiler, gases and solids pro- 
duced, 16. 

With saw dust, 33, 

A new plant, 37. 

With coal dust and screenings, 40. 



Firing with tan bam, 3b. 

Boilers, experiments in England. 'Rk 

A locomotive, 35. 
Files, use of, 21. 
Fish trap, 205. 
Fittings of marine boilers, 63. 

For boiler, specification, 87. 
Fixtures, boiler, description, 164. 
Flame, luminous, 41. 

Of anthracite coal, 16. 
Flange iron, description, 88, 
Flange of boiler head* proper rad- 
ius, 103. 
Flanges for pipe, 248. 
Flanges, how to be turned, etc., 85, 
Flat su r faces in boilers, how to stay, 

«8. 
Flue* and tubes, sweeping, 39. 
Flusn front, description, 165-166u 
Foaming in boilers, 42. 
Four way cock, description, 273. 
Fronts, boiler, description, 165. 
Frost-bite, treatment of, 317. 
Fuel, loss of, by incrustation, 143. 
Fuel economizer, description, 185. 
Fuel-oil, 289. 

Rules relating to, 290. 
Fuels, liquid and gas, 15. 

Table of comparative evaporative 
value, 18. 
Fullering, description, 94. 
Fulton, Robert, 1^. 
Furnace, temperature ot, 4fc. 

Fire, kindling of, 241. 

Chemistry of, 229, 

Dampers and doors, 39. 

Doors, description, 168-170, 
j The, 237. 

Fusible plugs, description, 171, 178. 
Galloway boiler, description of, 58, 
i Table of dimensions, 60. 
Gas, difference between it and a ivs^ 
Qld, 216. 

As a fuel, 15. 

From coal, comparative evapora- 
tion, 18. 

Dangers from, in idle boilers, 288. 

Amount burned in ventilating pipes 
265. 
Gasket chisel, 308w 
Gas pipe, illustrations of size, ^411 
Gas pliers, description, 269. 
Gate valve, description, 273. 
Generators, steam, description, 48. 
Glass, specific heat of, 214. 

[Radiating power of, 213^. 
Glass guages, description, 177. 
Glass water guage columns, 177. 



Index, 



325 



Globe valve, description. STSi 
Gold, radiating power of. 213. 

Conducting power of, 213 
Grate, the, 237. 
Grate bars, description, 173. 

How to preserve from excessive 
heat, 38, 

Shaking grates, 174. 

How kept during firing, 27. 
Caroovlng: of steam boileia, 1381 

List of cases, 125. 
Growtli of the steam boiler, 5& 
Guage, steam, description, 181. 
Gnage cocks, description, ITU, 
Gnages, glass, description, 177, 
Gna^es, pressure recording, descrip 

tion, 233. 
Gusset stays, description, 100, 108. 
Rammer, water, description, 283. 

Pene, 306. 
Hammer test of rivets, 95. 
Hand-liole plates, description. 8L 
Hanger for pipes, 308» 
Hazards of fuel-oil, 289. 

Of the boiler room, 285. 
Heads of rivets, cup, conical, pan 

heads, 113. 
Head to bead brace, descriptxob, lOSu 
Heat, laws of, 212. 

Unit of, 214. 

Specific, 214. 

How it becomes effective, IS. 
Heaters, feed water, description, 196. 
Heating, steam and hot water, 251. 

By exhaust steam, 267. 
Heat proof paints, 232 
Heat stroke, treatment of, 316. 
High pressure steam, 283 
Hinged valves, description, 272. 
Hoes, use of, 2L 
Homogeneous, definition^ 121, 
Horizontal tubular boiler^ de- 
scription, 79^ 

Parts of, 81. 

Table of sizes, 77. 
Horse power, rule for estimating, 
235 

As applied to boilers, 234. 
Hose, rubber, use of, 21. 
Hot shorty definition. 12S 
HoAV to carry injured persons, 319. 
Hour to prepare for inspection of 

r^team boilers, 130. 
Clvdrogen, specific heat of, 21& 

Description of, ^Q. 
Hydraulic test, 131. 
Ice, radiating power of, 213. 

Specific heat of, 214. 



Improper method of firlag, cuts 

and description, 27. 
Incrustation of steam boilers, \¥kr- 

144. 
Example of, 143. 
And scale, list of cases, 185!, 
Table showing quantity collecting 

loa 

Of boilers, ** points " relation to, 14^ 
152. 
Individuality of each steam boiler 

25, 
Injector, description, 206. 
Injured persons^ how to carry, 810. 

320. 
Inspection of steam boilers, 129. 

How to make ready for. 129-130. 
Inspector's questions to applicant, 

128. 
Inspector's rules relating to braces 

1021 
Interceptor, steam, description, 1831 
Introduction, 10. 
Iron, T , description of, 103. 

, Hammered), melting point, 43U 

(Wrought^ 'nelting point, 42. 

Fire box, description, 88. 

Charcoal iron, description, 88. 

(W^rought), conducting power of, 213 

Polisiied, radiating power of, 213. 

Specific .leat of, 214. 

Melting point, 42. 

Flange, description, 88. 

Cast, conducting power of, 213 
Irons, fire, 21. 
Issuing certificates of inspection, 

131. 
Jackscrevrs, description, 281. 
Jam brick, 237. 
Joints, putty, how to make, 808, 
Joints of lead pipe, 300 
Joints of pipes, 248. 
Kerosene oil in boilers, ** points'* of. 

156-7. 
Kindling a furnace ftre^ iML 
li, description, 274. 
Lace cutters, use of. 21. 
Ladders, use of. 21 . 
Ladle, 306 

Lamp black, radiating power of, 21Ji 
Lancashire boiler, description, 55. 

Defects of, 55. 
Language of steam boilers, 39. 
LauteriiN, use of, 21. 
Lap joint, illustration, 116. 
Laws of heat, 212. 
Lazy bar. description, dOi. 
I Lead, 299. 



326 



Index. 



Iiead, advantages in use of, 299. 

Melting point, 42. 

Conducting power of, 213. 

Wrought, radiating power of, 213. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Polished, radiating power of, 213. 
liOad pipe, how to make putty joints, 
304. 

Table of sizes and weights, 305. 

How to bend, 304. 
licad pipe joiuts, 300. 
Liever, length, rule, 193. 
Iiiftin«>: valves, description, 273. 
liime, definition, 138. 
liiquid, difference between it and a 

gas, 216. 
liitmus paper, definition, 153. 
Iiive steam, description, 282. 
liOcknut, description, 274. 
liocoiuotive, firing of, 35. 

Boiler Compound, 149. 

Or charging shovel, description, 19. 
Ijocomotive boilers, description, 72. 

How to rivet, 115. 
liocoinotive portable boiler, descrip- 
tion. 80. 
liookiug glass, 307. 
lioop, (steam), description of, 278-280. 
liow pressure steam, 283. 
liUgs, specification of, 86. 
Lumluous flame, 41. 
lUag-iiesIa, definition, 138. 

At what temperature deposited, 148. 

Carbonate of, definition, 138. 
Malleable, definition, 121. 
Manliole cover, description, 81, 
Manhole plates, specification, 86. 
Marine boilers, description of, 60. 

How to rivet, 115. 

Fittings for, 63. 

Table of dimensions, 63. 

Super heaters, 64. 

Use of zinc in, 163. 

Blast pipe for, 63. 

Uptakes, 64. 

Parts which first give way, 112, 

Incrustation and scaling of, 146-147. 
Marine engineers classification of, 
310. 

Rules relating to, 309. 
Marks on boiler plates, 88. 
Marble, conducting power of, 213. 
Materials, 12, 13. 
Meclianical scrapers, 187. 
Mechanical stokers, 134-135. 
Mercury, specific heat of, 214. 

Radiating powei of, 213. 
Meters, water, description, 203. 



Moisture, in wood, 14. 
Mouth piece, furnace, 236. 
Mud drum, description, 179. 
Newly set boilers, how fired, 28. 
Nickel steel boiler plates, description, 

91. 
Nipple, description, 274. 
Nitric acid, boiling point of, 37. 
Nitrogen, specific heat of, 215. 

Description of, 230. 
Non-conductors, 276. 
Noiseless water-heater, 312. 
Ocean steamer, how to fire 32. 
Oil, fuel, 289. 

Kerosene, in boilers, "points" of, 

156-157. 
Specific heat of, 214. 
Firing with, 32. 
Ore barrow, use of, 20. 
Organic matter in water, how indi 

cated, 154. 
Ornamental paints, 232. 
Overhanging front, description, 

165-1G7. 
Overhead system of heating, 256. 
Oxide, definition, 136. 

Of iron how best treated, 148. 
Oxygen, description of, 229. 
Specific heat of, 215. 
United with coal. 17. 
Paints, heat proof, 232. 
Palm stays, description, 100. 
Pan head of rivets, description, 113, 
Patch-screw^, description and cut 

123. 
Peat, description, 14. 
Analysis of, 13. 
Charcoal, description, 15. 
Comparative evaporation, 18. 
Pene hammer, 306. 
Petroleum, as a fuel, 15, 

Oil, comparative evaporation, 18. 
In boilers, use of, 155. 
Philadelphia W^ater \l^orks ex- 
ample of gain in good firemen, 25, 
Pipes, table of surfaces and capaci- 
ties, 246. 
Joints of, 248. 
How to weld, 264. 
Used for ice machinery, 363. 
Table of " data " relative to, 247. 
Pipes and piping, description, 244. 
Pipe coil, description, 257. 
Pipe couplings, 250. 
Pipe cutter, description and cut, 269. 
Pipe hanger, 308. 
Pipe, gas, illustration of size, 243. 
Pipe tongs, description, 269. 



Index. 



327 



IPlpe nnion, description, 274. 

Piping, dead end, 284. 

Piping? and drainage, description 

and illustration, 209. 
Pitting, of steam boilers, 12(5. 
Planer, (power), for boiler makers, 

281. 
Plate, dead, descriiition, 180. 

Quality of steel, 90. 
Plates, baffle, description, 180. 
Burned and blistered, list, 125. 
For boilers, table of thicknesses, 113. 
Pliers, gas, description, 269. 
Plug, description, 274. 
Plugs, fusible, description, 171-172. 
Plumb-bob, description, 306. 
Plumber's solder, how to make, 305. 
Plumber's tools, description, 306- 
309. 
Solder, rule for making, 305. 
Plumber's wipe joint, 298. 
Plumbing, description and cuts. 298, 

What engineers should know, 298. 
•' Points" relating to firing, 37. 
Relating to boiler braces, 104. 
Of danger in steam boiler, 125. 
Relating to grate bars, 175. 
Relating to water gauge cocks, 176. 
Relating to glass gauges, 177. 
Relating to the steam gauge, 182. 
Relating to safety valves, 194. 
Relating to feed water heaters, 201. 
Relating to water meters, 204. 
Relating to injectors, 209. 
Relating to pumps, 218-221. 
Relating to boiler setting, 239-241. 
Relating to steam heating, 254. 
Relating to chimneys and draught, 
297. 
Poker, description and cuts, 19. 
Portable boiler, locomotive, descrip- 
tion, 80, 
Car track, use of, 20. 
Potter, Humphry, inventor of 

valve motion, 270. 
Poultices, how to make, 319. 
Power planer for boiler makers, 281. 
Power puncli for boiler makers, 281. 
Precipitation of impurities in feed 

water, 144. 
Preface, 7. 
Preparation for firing steam boilers, 

24. 
Pressure gauges, list of defective 
cases, 123. 
Regulator valve, 274. 
Pressure of safety valve, rule, 192. 
Principles relating to water, 223. 



Proper method of firing, cnt and 

doscripiion, 21. 
Puncli for boiler makers, 281. 
Pump, description, 215. 
Classification, 217. 
Parts of, Illustration, 218. 
Double acting, 218. 
Direct pressure, 216. 
Calculations relating to, 222. 
Strainer, for, description, 223. 
Points relating to, 218-221. 
Putty joints, how to make, 303. 
Questions of applicant for marine 
license, 127. 
Asked by examining engineers, 309. 
Of proprietor, relating to steana 
boiler, 127. 
Radiant rays of heat, " point," 38. 
Radiating powder of various sub- 

stances, 213. 
Radiation of beat, law relating to, 

39. 
Railroad barrow^, jse of, 20. 
Ram, water, 284. 

Ratio of grate to heating surface, 175. 
Re-agent, definition, 136, 
Reamer, plumber's, 306. 
Recording pressure gauges, de- 
scription, 233. 
Reducing coupling, description, 274. 
Regulating the draught, 41. 
Regulations relating to marine engi- 
neers, 309. 
Regulators, damper, description, 185. 
Relief valve, description, 272. 
Repairing leaky tubes, 126. 
Repairs to boilers, "points" on, 124-6. 
Riveting, modes of, 93. 
Specification for, 86. 
Description, 91. 
Double description, 91. 
Chain, example, 93. 
Zig-Zag, example, 93. 
Treble, example, 93. 
Unequal pitches, example, 93. 
Example of riveting boiler plates, 

114-116. 
Hammers for boiler makers, 281. 
List of defective cases, 125. 
Rivet heads of cup, conical, pan 

heads, 113. 
Rivet beating machines, 261. 
Riveis, description, 93. 
Steel, description, 95. 
Table of diameters, 113. 
Rivet set, 307. 

Tests, 95. 
Riveted stays, description, 106. 



S28 



Index, 



Rolls for boiler makers, 281. | 

Rotary valves, description, 273^ 
Round nose cbisel, 307. I 

Rubber hose, use of, 21. 

Rule for estimating horse power of | 

boilers, 235. j 

For finding area of vulve opening^ 

195. 
To find pressure in lbs. of column of 

water, 222. 
To find area of steam piston of 

pump, 222. 
To find quantity of water elevated, 

For finding contents of a barrel, 203. 

For reading water meters, 204. 

For making boiler and pipe cover- 
ing, 275-276. 

For making solder, 305. 

For finding strain on bolts, 99. 

For safe internal pressure, 117. 

For determining areas of steam 

boilers, 105. 

I For calculating contents of steam 

and water in tbe steam boiler, 105. 

Rules* U. S., regarding safety valves, 

189. 

For safety valves, 193. 

Inspectors, relating to bracing, 102. 

Relating to fuel oil, 290. 

Factory, to prevent accident, 293. 

Government, to prevent accident, 
290. 

Before lighting the furnace fire, 25. 
Running of steam boilers under fire, 

24. 
Safe internal pressure, rale and 
example, 117. 

Tables, 118-120. 
Safety factor of steam boilers, 96. 
Safety valves, description. 187, 

Rules, 191, 193. 

Rule to find area of opening, 195. 

Table showing rise of valve, 195. 

List of defects, 125. 

Points relating to, 194. 
Aalt, definition, 138. 
Sand-bending of lead pipe, 904. 
Saturated steam, 283. 
Sa\;v, compass. 308. 

Plumber"- s, 307. 
%mxv dust, firing wltb, %, 242. 

As a fuel, 16. 
S«a -w^ater precipitator, 145. 
Seetlonal steaHK boilers, descrip« 

tion.n. 
Sentinel valve, description, 184. 
Separator, steam, description, 183. 



set screivrs, dangers arising froin,888 
Setting of steam boilers, 236. 
Of water tube boilers, 239. 
Scalds, treatment of, 313. 
Scale deposited in marine boilers, anal- 
ysis, 146-147. 
Boiler, analysis of, 148. 
Scaling of steam boilers, ♦♦points,'' 

149-152. 
Scope of the work, 12. 
Scoop shovel, cut and description,19« 
Scrapers, mechanical, 187. 
Screenings, firing of coal dust and, 

40. 
Screw conveyors, use of, 20. 
Screvi^-jacks, use of, 21. 
Screw stays, description, 101. 
Scum of boilers, how formed. 150, 
Scumming apparatus, descrlp 

tion, 161. 
Shaking grates, description, 174. 
Shavings, firing with, 33. 

Blowers, use of, 20. 
Shearing strength, definition, 121, 
Shears for boiler makers, 281. 
Shell of boiler, description, 81. 
Shovels, cut and description of, Ifll 
Side brackets for boilers, 240, 
Silica, definition, 137. 
I Silver, radiating power of , 213, 
Conducting power of, 213. 
Melting point, 42. 
Six inch flue, boiler, 78. 
Slice bar, description and cat8,lft, 
*' Point " relating to its use, 30l 
I Smoke, Insensibility from, treatmenl 

315. 
! Snips, plumber's, 306. 
Socket bolts, description, 103, 
I Soda, definition, 138. 
I Proportion of, in water, 154. 
i Acetate of, boiling point of, 37. 
Sodium, definition, 138. 
Solder, rule for making plumber's, 905. 
Sounds, or language of steam boilers, 

39. 
Source of poorer In the steam en- 
gine, 13. 
Specifications for 126 H. P. steaoi 

boiler, 85. 
Specific heat, descrlptioB, Sltf 

Table, 214. 
Spectacle piece, 124. 
Spirit level, 307. 

Stay bolts, hollow, descriptton. iA, 
Staying of flat surfaces, 96w 
Stays and braces, list of defective 
cases, 125. 



Index, 



329 



stays, gusset, description, 100. 

Of marine boilers, 75. 

Of locomoti-ve boilers, 75. 

"Points' relating to boiler stays, 
104. 

Palm, description, 100. 

Screwed, description, 101. 

And brace, difference, 103. 

Table for calculations, 107-109. 
Steam, description, 282. 

Specific heat of, 315. 

Dry, 283. 

Dead, 383. 

Live, 383. 

Saturated, 283. 

Wet, 383. 

High pressure, 283. 

Low pressure, 383. 

Superheated, 383. 

Specific gravity of, 383. 

Total heat of, 383. 
Steam and Iiot water lieatinaf, 251 
Steam boiler, growth of the, 53. 

Water tube, 67. 

Sectional, description of, 71. 

Triple diaught, 81-83. 

Six-inch flue, 78. 

Two-flue, 78. 
Steam boilers, locomotive, 73. 

Idle, dangers of, 288. 

Inspector's rules relating tobracing 
of, 103. 

Use of petroleum in, 155. 

Efifect of sugar on. 150, 

Corrosion and incrustation, li2. 

Scaling of, " points," U9-153, 

Effect of bark on, 151. 

Bracing. 96. 

Specification for 135 H. P., 85. 
Steam drum or dome, description, 81. 
Steam fitter's vise, 369. 
Steam fittings, care, 368. 

Description, 374. 
Steam gauge, description, 181. 
Steam generators, 48. 
Steam lieating by exhaust, 367. 

How much space 1 H. P. will heat, 
363. 
Steam loop, note relating to, 395. 

Description, 378-380. 
Steam pipe, linear expansion of, 376. 
Steam pipe explosions, 387. 
Steam pump, 315. 
Steam separator, description, 183. 
Steam space of boilers, rule and 

example, 105. 
Steam "wrtiiistle, description, 180. 
Steel rivetsj description, 96. 



Steel, boiler, description, 90. 
Melting point, 42. 
Specific heat of, 314. 
Steel plates, nickel steel, descrip 
tion. 91. 
Quality and thickness in, 85. 
Quality of. 90. 
Stepliensoai, George, 11. 
Stock and dies, use of, 21. 
Stoker, mechanical, 134. 
Storing coal, 235. 

Straightway valve, description, 373. 
Strainer, for pump, description, 223. 
Strain on bolts, rule and example, 

99. 
Straw, how best fired, 31. 

Composition of, as fuel, 15. 
Sugar, effect of, on steam boilers, 150. 
Sulphates, how indicated, 154. 

Definition 137. 
Sulphate of llmo, at what tempera- 
ture deposited, 148. 
Sulphur, description of , 230. 
Sulphuric acid, boiling point of , 37 
Sunstroke, treatment of, 315. 
Superheated steam, 283. 
Superheater of marine boiler, 64. 
Surface blow off, description. 161. 
Surface condenser, description, 65, 
Sw^ing valve, description, 273. 
Syphon, dangers from, in boilers, 288= 
T, description, 274. 
T irons, description and use, 103. 

Dimensions and shape, 104. 
Table of evaporation, 18. 

Melting points of metals, 4S. 

Temperature, judged by color, 42. 

Of dimensions, Galloway boiler, 60 

Of marine boilers, 62. 

Diameter of braces, 103. 

For calculating the num ber of stays 

107-109. 
Of dimensions of boiler tubes, 110. 
Holding power of boiler tubes 111. 
Of diameter of rivets and thickness 

of plate, 113. 
Of safe internal pressure, 118-120. 
Of defects found in &team boilers, 

125. 
Showing loss at different thickness- 
es by corrosion, 143. 
Showing sediment collecting in 

boilers, 163. 
Showing rise of safety valve, 195. 
Of savings from use of feed water, 

200. 
Capacity of cisterns, ?S&^ 
Of speciic heat, 214. 



330 



Index, 



Table of conducting power of various 
substances, 213. 
Of radiating power of various sub- 
stances, 213. 
Weight of cubic foot of water, 224. 
Weight and capacity of gallons of 

water, 225. 
Comparative quantity of water 

which can be evaporated, 231, 
Surfaces and capacities of pipes, 346. 
Of data relating to pipes, 247. 
Bursting pressure of tubes, 264. 
Of weights of round and plate iron, 

309, 311. 
Conducting power of various sub- 
stances, 275. 
Relative value of non-conductors, 

276. 
W^eights of lead pipe, 305. 
Tan, description, 15. 
Tan bark, comparative evaporation, 
18. 
Firing with, 36. 
Tauks, for fuel oil, how to construct, 

290. 
Tan-liquor, unsafe use of, in boilers. 

185. 
Tap-borer, plumber's, 306. 
Taps and dies, description, 269, 
Tee, description, 274. 
Temperature of a furnace, 43. 
Tensile streng'th of steel plate, 90. 

Of boilers, 121. 
Test, the hydraulic, 131. 
Testing-boiler, specification, 87. 
Testing boilers under steam pres- 
sure, 287. 
Test pieces, description and illustra- 
tion, 105, 112. 
Tests for impurities in water, 153. 
Tests of steel rivets, 95, 
Thimbles, specification for, 86. 
Three way cock, description, 273. 
Throttle valve, description, 273. 
Tin, melting point, 42. 

Conducting power of, 213. 
Specific heat of 214. 
Radiating power, of 213. 
Tissue paper, radiating power of, 213. 
Tongs for boiler makers 281. 
Tool box, description, 22. 
Tools, plumber's, description, 306-309. 
Handy foi the fire-room, 21. 
Used in steam fitting, 269. 
Boiler maker's, 281. 
Plumber's caulking, 308. 
Torch, 307. 
Total heat of steam, 283. 



Tough, definition, 121, 

Trained or untrained firemen, differ- 

ence, 24. 
Trap, fish, 2a5. 

Treble riveting, example, 93. 
Triple draught, tubular boiler, 82. 
Trevethick, Richard, frontispiece. 
Tube expanders, 281. 
Tubes, how to weld, 264. 

Table of bursting and collapsing 
pressures, 264. 

Boiler, illustration of size, 245. 

Experiments in holding power, HI. 

Table of holding power, 111. 

Boiler, table of dimensions, 110. 

Leaky, how to repair, 126. 
Tubes and flues, sweeping, 39. 
Tube sheets, description, 81. 
Turn-pin, description, 306. 
Two flue steam boiler, 78. 
Umbria, steamer, firing boilers, 32. 
Unequal riveting, example, 93. 
Union, description, 274. 
Unit of chimney measurements, 297. 
Upright steam boilers, descrip- 
tion, 51. 
Uptakes of marine boiler, 64. 
Valve, gate, 273. 

Globe, description, 272. 

Brine, description, 273. 

Pop, description, 184. 

Angle, description, 273. 

Check, description, 278. 

Sentinel, description, 184. 

Pressure regulator, 274. 

Rotary, description, 273, 

Straightway, description, 273. 

Throttle, description, 273, 

Ball, description, 273. 

(chamber, description, 272. 

Double beat and double seat, 273. 

Swing description, 273. 
Valve bracket, description, 272. 
Valve cock, description, 272. 
Valve coupling, description, 272, 
Valves, description, 271. 

Safety, description, 187, 

Of what material made, 274. 
Valves, hinged, description, 272, 

Relief, description, 272. 

Back pressure, description, 273. 

Lifting, description, 274. 
Valves and cocks, description, 272. 
Valve-seat, description, 272. 
Vaults for fuel oil, how to construct, 

289. 
Ventilation, 265. 
Vise, steamfitter's, 209. 



Index, 



331 



ViBe«, nse of, 2L 
Water, how formed, 143. 

Principles relating to, 223. 

Principle temperatures of, 224. 

Point of maximum density, 224. 

The boiling point, 224. 

The standard temperature, 234. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Boiling point of pure, 37. 

Radiating power of, 213. 

Conducting power of, 213. 

Freezing point, 224. 
Water, (sea,) precipitator for, 145. 

Boiling point of salt, 37. 
Water bending of lead pipe, 304. 
l¥atcr circulation, 294. 
Water grate bars; description, 175. 

Gauge cocks, description, 176, 
Water bammer, 288. 
Water meters, rule for reading, 205. 

Description, 203. 
Water ram, 284. 

Water space of boilers, rule and ex- 
ample, 105. 
Water table in locomotive, 35. 
Water tube steam boiler, descrip- 
tion, 67. 
Water beater, noiseless, 312. 



^ITHter tube steam bdUer, settios of 

239. 
W^att, James, 6. 

Weigbt of different standard gallon 
of water, 225. 

Of a column of air, 17. 
Weldable, definition, 121. 
Welding boiler and other tubes, 364. 
Wet steam, 283. 
Wheelbarrow, use of, 20. 
Wbistle, steam, description, 180. 
WhitCAvasli, description, 2;?2. 
W^ipe joint, how to make, 300. 

Plumber's, 298. 
Wood, comparative evaporation, I81 

Specific heat of, 214. 

As a combustible, 14. 

"Hint as to drying," 14. 
Wood cbarcoal, comparative evap 

oration, 18. 
W^ood cbisel, 307. 
Wounds, treatment of, 310. 
Writing paper, radiating power o^ 

213. 
Zig-zag riveting, example, 93. 
Zinc, conducting power of, 213. 

Melting point, 42. 

Effect on corrosion of boilers, ISO 

Use in marine boilers, 163. 

Specific heat of, 214. 




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